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An Introduction to Semantics

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Semantics: The Meanings of Language

The linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases & sentences ... i need to buy a pen for shelby (pen: animal cage, something to write with) ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams. 2003 Introduction to language
• The study of
• the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases sentences
• the context when determining meaning
• Lexical semantics
• Studying the meaning of words and morphemes
• Meaning relationships among words
• Sentential (phrasal) semantics
• Studying the meaning of syntactic units larger than words
• Phrases sentences
• Studying how contexts affect meaning
• eg) Its cold in here to be interpreted as
• close windows or turn on the heater
• All the speakers of a language share a basic vocabulary the sounds and meanings of morphemes and words
• We cannot change the meaning of words arbitrarily
• If we did we would be unable to communicate with anyone
• The meaning of words is part of linguistic knowledge
• The mental storehouse of word and morpheme meanings ? Lexicon
• In the sentence the assassin killed Thwacklehurst, knowledge of the word assassin includes knowing that the individual to whom that word refers
• is a murderer
• is a killer of important people
• These pieces of information
• ? semantic properties
• Semantic properties are the components of meaning of a word
• The meaning of all content words (N,A,V,Adv) and some of the function words (eg. With, over) can be specified, at least partially, by such properties.
• female is a semantic property of words
• tigress hen doe mare vixen widow girl aunt debutante
• human is a semantic property of words
• widow girl aunt doctor dean bachelor parent
• young is a semantic property of words
• child baby cub kitten duckling chick
• cause is a semantic property of words
• darken (cause to become dark) kill (cause to die)
• uglify (cause to become ugly)
• All content words (N, A, V, Adv) and some function words (eg. over, with) can be specified by semantic properties.
• The same SP may occur in words of different categories
• eg) female mother, breast-feed, pregnant
• Additional semantic properties make for fine distinction in meaning
• eg) plod (slow) from work
• stalk (purposeful, menace) from plod
• Presence of one SP can be inferred from the presence or absence of another (redundancy)
• eg) human ? animate, but not equine
• Slips of the tongue (Speech errors)
• Definition A formal or notational device for expressing the presence or absence of semantic properties by pluses and minuses.
• woman female human -young
• father male human parent
• mare female human -young -equine
• stalk motion slow purposeful
• Intersecting classes share some features
• eg) girl female, human
• Capturing difference of noun types
• eg) dog count / rice -count
• I have two dogs I have two rice(s)
• He has many dogs He has many rices(s)
• He has much dogs He has much rice
• Words are related to one another in a variety of ways
• Types of nym
• Words that are pronounced the same, but have a different meaning
• May or may not differ in spelling
• to/too/two tale/tail flower/flour
• bat/bat ground/ground
• Create ambiguity
• Ill meet you by the bank
• definition the concept of words with multiple meanings
• eg) bear to tolerate, to carry, to support
• Two words with same spelling but different pronunciation
• eg) dove, bow, lead, wind
• Two words with same spelling but different meanings
• homonyms with same spelling, all heteronyms
• eg) bear/bear (but not bear/bare), dove/dive
• Homonymous words
• different dictionary entry
• different etymology
• single dictionary entry, but different use
• walk the dog, talk a walk, Lambeth Walk
• Words that sound different but have the same or nearly the same meaning
• examples couch/sofa, car/automobile
• partial synonymy -- polysemous words
• deep/profound (for thought but not for water)
• mature/ripe (for fruit but not for animals)
• there are no perfect synonyms
• No two words with exactly the same meaning
• driver/chauffeur
• Useful for lexical paraphrasing
• eg) she forgot her handbag/purse.
• Words that are opposite in meaning
• eg) hot/cold, thin/thick
• Only one semantic property difference can cause antonyms
• eg) wife/husband (male/female)
• Autoantonyms
• Some words are their own antonyms
• cleave to split apart or to cling together
• dust to remove something or to spread something
• Antonym formation
• Adding prefixes un, non, in, mis, dis
• complementary pair
• eg) alive/dead, present/absent, awake/asleep
• gradable pair
• eg) big/small, hot/cold, fast/slow
• marked/unmarked
• relational pair
• give/receive, teacher/pupil, buy/sell
• A hyponym is a word that is conceptually included within the definition of another word
• eg) red, blue, purple are hyponyms of color
• eg) lion, tiger, leopard are hyponyms of feline
• A word or phrase that represents something by close association
• Lands belonging to the crown (king)
• The Kettle is boiling (water in the kettle)
• Diamond for (baseball)
• Turf for (horseracing)
• An expression that once was redundant
• eg) Day baseball, silent movie, surface mail, whole milk
• it applies to the combination of words
• Unique words for referring to people, places, institutions or gods.
• eg) Smith, Central High School, Seoul
• They refer to a specific object or entity but usually have little meaning (sense)
• Unique and definite but no definite article the
• eg) the John Smith, the California
• exceptions) the Mississippi, the Queen Mary ..
• Cannot usually be pluralized
• Universal found in all languages
• The study of how word meanings combine into phrase and sentence meanings, and the meaning relationships among these larger units ? phrasal or sentential semantics
• Although words and morphemes are basic units of meaning, we communicate in phrases and sentences.
• the meaning of a phrase or sentence depends both on the meaning of its words and how those words are combined structurally.
• Same words, same structure but different combination
• John loves Mary / Mary loves John
• Same words, same combination but different structure
• Visiting relatives can be boring
• Words have synonyms / sentences have paraphrases
• They ran the bill up
• They ran up the bill
• Words have homonyms / sentences have ambiguity
• I need to buy a pen for Shelby
• (Pen animal cage, something to write with)
• Words have antonyms / sentences have negatives
• he is alive
• he is not alive (negated) / he is dead (antonymous)
• Noun and Verb are two crucial categories for English sentences
• Thus, meaning structure focusing on them will be examined
• Noun-centered meaning
• Verb-centered meaning
• Complex semantic rules for adjective-noun combination
• red balloon / large balloon
• red is always red but large can be relative
• eg) red ant / large ant
• good friend/ false friend
• a good friend is a kind of friend but a false friend is not
• alleged murderer
• We dont know it is a murderer or not
• The head of the phrase determines the principal meaning
• Adjective Noun the noun, the NP head, has the principal meaning
• eg) red brick is a kind of brick
• Noun compounds the final noun is generally the head
• eg) house dog / dog house
• According to Frege(1967), every significant linguistic expression has both sense and reference, these being different kinds of semantic properties
• The mason put the red brick on the wall
• The object pointed to in the NP the red brick ? referent
• The NP is said to have reference
• some additional meaning to this reference ? sense
• The red brick is the first brick from the right
• Two NPs have the same referent (coreferential)
• They have different sense
• Certain proper names have only reference
• Chris Jones a certain person and thats it
• Others have additional meaning
• Humpty Dumpty a good round shape
• Sue, John female, male
• Fido, Dobbins, Bossie dogs, horses, cows
• Two proper names can have the same referent
• Superman and Clark Kent
• Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
• Sometimes reference changes but sense endures
• the president of the United States
• sense head of state of the USA
• reference George W. Bush (will change)
• Some NPs have sense but no reference
• The present king of France is bald
• By the year 3000, our descendents will have left Earth
• In all languages, the verb plays a central role in the meaning and structure of sentences
• Verb determines the no. of objects
• eg) go(0) / find(1) / put(2)
• Verb limits the semantic properties of its subjects and objects
• eg) find requires an animate subject
• A way of stating
• the selectional restrictions of the verb
• semantic relationships between subjects and objects
• Thematic roles include
• Agent, Theme, Location, Goal, Source, Instrument, Experimenter, Causative, Possessor
• Invariable semantic properties of words in paraphrased sentences
• the boy found a red brick
• the boy agent
• a red brick theme
• a red brick was found by the boy
• same thematic roles as above
• In some related sentences that are not paraphrases
• The boy opened the door with the key.
• The key opened the door.
• The door opened.
• The boy agent
• The door theme
• The key instrument
• ? English allows many thematic roles to be the subject of the sentence
• Lexicon contains info of thematic roles
• find, V, ___ NP, (Agent, Theme)
• put, V, ___ NP PP, (Agent, Theme, Goal)
• Various thematic roles
• see p.192-193
• Theta criterion
• A universal principle which states in part that a particular thematic role may occur only once in a sentence.
• The boy opened the door with the key with a lock-pick
• semantically anomalous since two NPs have the same theta-role instrument
• the boys red hat of Bill
• semantically anomalous since both NPs have the thematic role possessor
• The meaning of sentences is built, in part, from the meaning of NPs and VPs
• ? Principle of Compositionality
• Adverbs may add to or qualify the meaning.
• The boyNP found the ballVP yesterdayAdvp
• The circumstances of a declarative sentence
• The declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 ? True
• The declaration of Independence was signed in 1976 ? False
• The truth condition does not determine the grammaticality.
• Truth conditions are needed to formally determine various sentential meanings
• Eg) paraphrases, entailment, contradiction, presupposition
• Two sentences are paraphrases if they have the same truth conditions.
• Example (passivization paraphrase)
• A. The horse threw the rider.
• B. The rider was thrown by the horse.
• If A is true, then B is true.
• If B is true, then A is true.
• Example (passivization no paraphrase)
• A. Every person in this room speaks two languages.
• B. Two languages are spoken by every person in this room.
• Even if A is true, B may not be true.
• the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other.
• A. The president was assassinated.
• B. The president is dead.
• If A is T, then B is T (A entails B)
• But not vice versa.
• Negative entailment
• A is True, then B is False
• A. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.
• B. Elizabeth II is a man.
• Implicit assumptions about the real world.
• The presupposition(s) of an utterance are facts whose truth is required for the utterance to be appropriate.
• A. John stopped beating his wife.
• B. John once beat his wife.
• C. John is married
• ? A presupposes B C.
• Even negation of the utterance does not change presupposition.
• D. John stopped beating his wife.
• ? D(negated A) still presupposes B C. (unlike Entailment)
• Some sentences describe events, others describe states.
• John kissed Mary
• John ate oysters
• John knows Mary
• John likes oysters
• Eventive sentences sound natural when
• Mary was kissed by John.
• Expressed progressively
• John is kissing Mary.
• Used imperatively
• When used with certain adverbs
• John deliberately kissed Mary.
• Stative sentences seem peculiar when
• ?Mary is known by John.
• ?John is knowing Mary.
• Used imperatively.
• ?Know Mary!
• ?John deliberately knows Mary.
• The meaning of a reflexive pronoun always refers back to some antecedent.
• Janei bit herselfi
• Janei said that herselfi slept
• Janei said that Bill bit herselfi
• ? A reflexive pronoun and its antecedent must be in the same S-rooted tree. (see p200)
• Meaning of an expression is not always obvious
• Expressions that appear to follow the rules of syntax, but go awry semantically
• My brother is an only child
• That bachelor is pregnant
• Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
• Semantic violations are caused by semantic property mismatch among words
• Expressions that ordinarily designates one conceptits literal meaningbut is used to designate another concept, thus creating an implicit comparison.
• Non-literal, indirect, creative meaning
• My new car is a lemon
• Literally anomalous but metaphorically OK.
• Strong cultural component only those with cars and lemons may understand the metaphorical meaning.
• Dr. Jekyll is a butcher
• John is a snake in the grass
• Literal and metaphorical meanings are different
• Time is money
• To interpret metaphor, we need to understand both the literal meaning and facts about the world.
• Expressions the meaning of which is unrelated to the meaning of its parts, though it is conventionally understood.
• Sell down the river
• Haul over the coals
• See p206 and other sources
• Idioms need to enter into the lexicon as single items
• Idioms tend to be frozen in form
• She put her bracelet in her drawer
• The drawer in which she put her bracelet was hers
• Her bracelet was put in her drawer
• She put her foot in her mouth
• The mouth in which she put her foot was hers (not idiomatic)
• Her foot was put in her mouth (not idiomatic)
• The FBI kept tabs on radicals
• Tabs were kept on radicals by the FBI (still idiomatic)
• Radicals were kept tabs on by the FBI (still idiomatic)
• Interpretation of linguistic meaning in context
• Linguistic contexts
• Consider the sentence Amazingly, he loves her
• Linguistic meaning Something male and animate has arrived at a state of adoration of something female and animate, and the speaker finds it astonishing.
• ? There are no referents for he and her
• If the sentence preceding it were
• John met Mary yesterday
• ? Its interpretation would be clearer (heJohn, sheMary)
• Situational contexts (Knowledge of the world)
• The listener must know the real-world referents of John and Mary.
• For interpretation of amazingly, general belief or knowledge is needed. (eg. A person usually needs more than a day to complete the act of falling in love)
• Examples of situational contexts
• Information on speaker, hearer, and any third parties.
• Physical environment, the subject of conversation, the time of day, etc.
• Son of a bitch
• ? an insult
• Do you have any spare change?
• ? Request for money
• I now pronounce you husband and wife
• ? an act of marrying performed
• A linguistic unit larger than a sentence
• Phoneme lt morpheme lt word lt sentence lt discourse
• Composed of one or more sentences
• Express complex thoughts and ideas
• Discourse analysis
• The study of how speakers combine sentences into broader speech unit, i.e., discourse
• Involves questions of style, appropriateness, cohesiveness, rhetorical force, topic/subtopic structure, differences bet Written and spoken discourse, grammatical properties, etc.
• In a discourse, prior linguistic context plays a primary role in pronoun interpretation
• It seems that the man loves the woman
• Many people think he loves her.
• Most commonly (bound pronoun)
• he ? the man, her ? the woman
• Possibly (unbound or free pronoun)
• he (with emphasis) ? another man
• her (with emphasis) ? another woman
• Ultimate interpretation of pronouns is determined by the situational context.
• Gapping (Syntactically wrong but OK in discourse)
• 1st speaker My aunt washed the dishes.
• 2nd speaker My uncle dried. (the dishes omitted)
• Jill washed the grapes and Bill (washed) the cherries.
• Sluicing (wh-word omission)
• Your ex-husband is dancing with someone, but I dont know who (he is dancing with).
• My cat ate something, and I wish I knew what (she ate).
• Used to indicate that the referent of a NP is agreed upon by speaker and listener
• Presence or absence makes a great difference
• The terrorists are in control of the government.
• (Terrorists are in charge)
• The terrorists are in the control of the government.
• (The government is in charge of the terrorists)
• Consider the sentence
• Helen wants to marry a college professor
• Specific use Helen wants to marry Robert, and Rob is a college professor
• Non-specific use Helen doesnt have a particular person in mind to marry, but she is confining her search for a mate to college professors.
• Ambiguity arises
• A woman gives birth in the U.S. every 15 seconds
• Mostly, context disambiguates the meaning.
• Much discourse is telegraphic.
• VPs are not specifically mentioned
• Entire clauses are left out
• Direct objects disappear
• Pronouns abound
• ? Yet people still understand people, thanks to contextual knowledge.
• Contextual knowledge (situational context)
• Knowledge of who is speaking, who is listening, what objects are being discussed, general facts about the world we live in.
• Often what we say is not literally what we mean
• Can you pass the salt
• Not asking but requesting
• Youre standing on my foot
• Im asking you to stand somewhere else
• Its cold in here
• Shut the window
• Turn up the heat
• Well-structured discourse follows certain rules and maxims, such as be relevant, that make the discourse coherent.
• The maxim of quantity
• Say neither more nor less than the discourse requires
• The maxim of relevance
• Be relevant
• The maxim of manner
• Be brief and orderly avoid ambiguity and obscurity
• The maxim of quality
• Do not lie do not make unsupported claims
• Description
• Make your contribution as informative as required
• Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
• Bereft of context, saying (truthfully)
• I have never slept with your girl friend
• This topic of conversation should be unnecessary
• A Can you pass me the salt?
• B Yes, I can.
• Say things that are pertinent to the discussion
• A What on earth has happened to the roast beef?
• B The dog is looking very happy.
• Be brief and orderly.
• Avoid ambiguity and obscurity
• Violation (obscurity)
• A What are you baking?
• B Be I are tea aitch dee ay wye see ay kay ee.
• Violation (prolixity)
• A I hear you went to the opera last night how was the lead singer?
• B The singer produced a series of sounds corresponding closely to the score of an aria from '"Rigoletto."
• Do not lie Avoid falsehood.
• Do not make unsupported claims.
• A Tehran's in Turkey, isn't it?
• B And London's in Armenia, I suppose.
• Using language to do things making promises, laying bets, issuing warnings, offering congratulations, swearing testimony, etc.
• Describing how this is done
• ? The theory of speech acts
• Performative verbs
• Bet, promise, warn,
• Using them in a sentence does something extra over and above the statement
• Eg) I promise to improve. (See p.215 for others)
• Characteristics
• 1st person subject.
• Affirmative and declarative sentences
• Present tense
• I here by Test
• I here by ___
• Eg) I hereby apologize to you (ok ? performative)
• Eg) I hereby know you (awkward ? nonperformative)
• The speaker's intention in producing an utterance
• Underlying purpose of the utterance
• Depends on the context of the utterance
• Types asserting, promising, advising, inquiring, ordering
• The bar will be closed in five minutes
• ? Informing the patrons of the bar's imminent closing and perhaps also the act of urging them to order a last drink.
• Band practice, my house, 6 to 8
• ? either reminder or warning (See the cartoon on p214)
• Markers Intonation, verbal mood, punctuation signs
• reference by means of an expression whose interpretation is relative to the (usually) extralinguistic context of the utterance, such as  
• who is speaking
• the time or place of speaking
• the gestures of the speaker, or
• the current location in the discourse.
• Deictic expressions
• Person deixis
• 1st and 2nd person pronouns I, you, my, your, we, ours
• 3rd person pronouns which are free he, she, they
• Exception) It appears as though sheepdogs are the missing link.
• No function as a true pronoun not referring to some entity
• A grammatical morpheme, a placeholder to satisfy the English rules of syntax
• Time deixis now, then, tomorrow, this time, seven days ago, last week, next September
• Place deixis here, there, this place, these parks, this ranch
• Social deixis Your Honor, Mr President
• Misinterpretation of deictic expressions
• confused communication (see cartoon on P217)
• Deixis marks a boundary of semantics pragmatics
• Deictic expressions such as I, an hour from now, behind me, have meaning (sense).
• To complete their meaning by determining their reference, it is necessary to know the context.

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What is semantics?

Jul 30, 2014

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What is semantics?. It is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language system. What does a semantic analysis focus on?.

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Presentation Transcript

What is semantics? It is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language system.

What does a semantic analysis focus on? A semantic analysis mainly focuses on the conventional meaning of words (the meaning conveyed by the literal use of words and sentences; dictionary meaning), rather than on what a speaker might want the words to mean on a particular occasion.

Continue This means that this linguistic approach to meaning emphasizes the objective and the general. It keeps away from, on the other hand, the subjective and the local.

Definition: SENTENCE MEANING Sentence meaning or word meaning is what a sentence (or word) literally means; the equivalent as manifested in standard dictionaries of the language concerned.

Definition: SPEAKER MEANING Speaker meaning is what a speaker intends to convey, transmit, or deliver when he uses a piece of language. The same sentence can be used by different speakers on different occasions to mean different things.

Continue The first step in dealing with the theory of meaning is to clearly recognize the distinction between what speakers mean and what words (or sentences) mean.

Continue Once a person has had a good command over the meanings of words and sentences of a language system, he can quickly understand the different conversational and social functions of utterances. However, prior consideration is given to sentence meaning.

Who has access to the basic data of meaning? Competent speakers of a language can safely know and describe the meanings of words and sentences of it. However, they can not by anyway exceed native speakers of a language in the matter of access to the basic data of meaning. A native speaker (informant) is the primary source of information about meaning.

Continue English, as most languages, has a number of different dialects whose pronunciation differs from a dialect to another. As a result, there are also differences in the basic semantic facts from one dialect to another. That's why native speakers of a particular dialect are the main source of access to the meanings of this dialect in general.

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