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representation

Definition of representation

Examples of representation in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'representation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

15th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Phrases Containing representation

• proportional representation
• self - representation

Dictionary Entries Near representation

representant

representationalism

Cite this Entry

“Representation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/representation. Accessed 11 Aug. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of representation, legal definition, legal definition of representation, more from merriam-webster on representation.

Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for representation

Nglish: Translation of representation for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of representation for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about representation

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representation

[ rep-ri-zen- tey -sh uh n , -z uh n- ]

• the act of representing.
• the state of being represented.
• the expression or designation by some term, character, symbol, or the like.
• action or speech on behalf of a person, group, business house, state, or the like by an agent, deputy, or representative.

to demand representation on a board of directors.

• Government. the state, fact, or right of being represented by delegates having a voice in legislation or government.
• the body or number of representatives, as of a constituency.
• the act of speaking or negotiating on behalf of a state.
• an utterance on behalf of a state.
• presentation to the mind, as of an idea or image.
• a mental image or idea so presented; concept.
• the act of portrayal, picturing, or other rendering in visible form.
• a picture, figure, statue, etc.
• the production or a performance of a play or the like, as on the stage.
• Often representations. a description or statement, as of things true or alleged.
• a statement of facts, reasons, etc., made in appealing or protesting; a protest or remonstrance.

a representation of authority.

/ ˌrɛprɪzɛnˈteɪʃən /

• the act or an instance of representing or the state of being represented
• anything that represents, such as a verbal or pictorial portrait
• anything that is represented, such as an image brought clearly to mind
• the principle by which delegates act for a constituency
• a body of representatives
• contract law a statement of fact made by one party to induce another to enter into a contract
• an instance of acting for another, on his authority, in a particular capacity, such as executor or administrator
• a dramatic production or performance
• often plural a statement of facts, true or alleged, esp one set forth by way of remonstrance or expostulation

phonetic representation

Other Words From

• nonrep·re·sen·tation noun
• over·repre·sen·tation noun
• prerep·re·sen·tation noun
• self-repre·sen·tation noun
• under·repre·sen·tation noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of representation 1

Example Sentences

It was a metaphorical statement of giving and withdrawing consent for a show rooted in a literal representation of Coel being assaulted.

The mathematically manipulated results are passed on and augmented through the stages, finally producing an integrated representation of a face.

I hope this list—a representation of the most consequential changes taking places in our world—is similarly useful for you.

“Given the moment we are in, I can only hope our institutions really understand what this failure of representation means to our city,” he said.

The voters don’t want to have an elected city attorney on the, and representation said, that’s fine.

With all that said, representation of each of these respective communities has increased in the new Congress.

As this excellent piece in Mother Jones describes, however, Holsey had outrageously poor representation during his trial.

During that time days, Livvix went through court hearings without legal representation.

What do you think prompted the change in comic book representation of LGBTQ characters?

Barbie is an unrealistic, unhealthy, insulting representation of female appearance.

With less intelligent children traces of this tendency to take pictorial representation for reality may appear as late as four.

As observation widens and grows finer, the first bald representation becomes fuller and more life-like.

The child now aims at constructing a particular linear representation, that of a man, a horse, or what not.

He had heard it hinted that allowing the colonies representation in Parliament would be a simple plan for making taxes legal.

But sufficient can be discerned for the grasping of the idea, which seems to be a representation of the Nativity.

Related Words

Look up a word, learn it forever.

Representation, /rɛprɪzɛnˈteɪʃɪn/, /rɛprəzɛnˈteɪʃən/.

Other forms: representations

A representation acts or serves on behalf or in place of something. A lawyer provides legal representation for his client. A caricature is an exaggerated representation or likeness of a person.

Representation comes from the Latin repraesentare meaning "bring before, exhibit." A representation is an exhibit, whether it comes in the form of legal guidance or in the form of artistic expression. The act of representation has to do with replacing or acting on behalf of an original. Elected officials serve as the representation for their constituency — or at least it's supposed to work that way.

• noun the act of representing; standing in for someone or some group and speaking with authority in their behalf see more see less types: proportional representation representation of all parties in proportion to their popular vote type of: cooperation joint operation or action
• noun a presentation to the mind in the form of an idea or image synonyms: internal representation , mental representation see more see less types: show 44 types... hide 44 types... convergence , intersection , overlap a representation of common ground between theories or phenomena instantiation a representation of an idea in the form of an instance of it antitype a person or thing represented or foreshadowed by a type or symbol; especially a figure in the Old Testament having a counterpart in the New Testament stereotype a conventional or formulaic conception or image schema , scheme an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world image , mental image an iconic mental representation interpretation , reading , version a mental representation of the meaning or significance of something phantasmagoria a constantly changing medley of real or imagined images (as in a dream) psychosexuality the mental representation of sexual activities percept , perception , perceptual experience the representation of what is perceived; basic component in the formation of a concept memory something that is remembered example , model a representative form or pattern appearance a mental representation blur , fuzz a hazy or indistinct representation abstractionism , unrealism a representation having no reference to concrete objects or specific examples concrete representation , concretism a representation of an abstract idea in concrete terms reminiscence a mental impression retained and recalled from the past crossroads a point where a choice must be made interface the overlap where two theories or phenomena affect each other or have links with each other imagination image , thought-image a mental image produced by the imagination reinterpretation a new or different meaning figure a unitary percept having structure and coherence that is the object of attention and that stands out against a ground ground a relatively homogeneous percept extending back of the figure on which attention is focused visual image , visual percept a percept that arises from the eyes; an image in the visual system recollection something recalled to the mind engram , memory trace a postulated biochemical change (presumably in neural tissue) that represents a memory confabulation (psychiatry) a plausible but imagined memory that fills in gaps in what is remembered screen memory an imagined memory of a childhood experience; hides another memory of distressing significance memory image a mental image of something previously experienced visual image , visualisation , visualization a mental image that is similar to a visual perception impression , mental picture , picture a clear and telling mental image auditory image a mental image that is similar to an auditory perception loadstar , lodestar something that serves as a model or guide epitome , image , paradigm , prototype a standard or typical example holotype , type specimen the original specimen from which the description of a new species is made microcosm a miniature model of something archetype , original , pilot something that serves as a model or a basis for making copies guide , template , templet a model or standard for making comparisons prefiguration an example that prefigures or foreshadows what is to come illusion , semblance an erroneous mental representation 3-D , 3D , three-D having a three-dimensional form or appearance front the outward appearance of a person embodiment , shape a concrete representation of an otherwise nebulous concept anagoge a mystical or allegorical interpretation (especially of Scripture) type of: cognitive content , content , mental object the sum or range of what has been perceived, discovered, or learned
• noun an activity that stands as an equivalent of something or results in an equivalent see more see less types: show 14 types... hide 14 types... model , modeling , modelling the act of representing something (usually on a smaller scale) dramatisation , dramatization a dramatic representation pageant , pageantry an elaborate representation of scenes from history, etc.; usually involves a parade with rich costumes figuration representing figuratively as by emblem or allegory diagramming , schematisation , schematization providing a chart or outline of a system pictorial representation , picturing visual representation as by photography or painting typification the act of representing by a type or symbol; the action of typifying simulation the act of imitating the behavior of some situation or some process by means of something suitably analogous (especially for the purpose of study or personnel training) guerrilla theater , street theater dramatization of a social issue; enacted outside in a park or on the street puppetry a stilted dramatic performance (as if by puppets) symbolising , symbolizing the act of representing something with a symbol delineation , depiction , portrayal representation by drawing or painting etc imaging , tomography (medicine) obtaining pictures of the interior of the body photography , picture taking the act of taking and printing photographs type of: activity any specific behavior
• noun a creation that is a visual or tangible rendering of someone or something see more see less types: show 120 types... hide 120 types... adumbration a sketchy or imperfect or faint representation audiogram a graphical representation of a person's auditory sensitivity to sound copy a thing made to be similar or identical to another thing cosmography a representation of the earth or the heavens creche a representation of Christ's nativity in the stable at Bethlehem cutaway , cutaway drawing , cutaway model a representation (drawing or model) of something in which the outside is omitted to reveal the inner parts display , presentation a visual representation of something document anything serving as a representation of a person's thinking by means of symbolic marks drawing a representation of forms or objects on a surface by means of lines ecce homo a representation (a picture or sculpture) of Jesus wearing a crown of thorns effigy , image , simulacrum a representation of a person (especially in the form of sculpture) illustration a visual representation (a picture or diagram) that is used make some subject more pleasing or easier to understand map a diagrammatic representation of the earth's surface (or part of it) model , simulation a representation of something (sometimes on a smaller scale) nomogram , nomograph a graphic representation of numerical relations objectification a concrete representation of an abstract idea or principle exposure , photo , photograph , pic , picture a representation of a person or scene in the form of a print or transparent slide; recorded by a camera on light-sensitive material icon , ikon , image , picture a visual representation (of an object or scene or person or abstraction) produced on a surface pieta a representation of the Virgin Mary mourning over the dead body of Jesus projection the representation of a figure or solid on a plane as it would look from a particular direction rubbing representation consisting of a copy (as of an engraving) made by laying paper over something and rubbing it with charcoal shade a representation of the effect of shadows in a picture or drawing (as by shading or darker pigment) set , stage set representation consisting of the scenery and other properties used to identify the location of a dramatic production Station of the Cross a representation of any of the 14 stages in Christ's journey to Calvary avatar an electronic image representing a computer user anamorphism , anamorphosis a distorted projection or perspective; especially an image distorted in such a way that it becomes visible only when viewed in a special manner beefcake a photograph of a muscular man in minimal attire bitmap , electronic image an image represented as a two dimensional array of brightness values for pixels black and white , monochrome a black-and-white photograph or slide blueprint photographic print of plans or technical drawings etc. carbon , carbon copy a copy made with carbon paper cast , casting object formed by a mold charcoal a drawing made with a stick of black carbon material chart a map designed to assist navigation by air or sea cheesecake a photograph of an attractive woman in minimal attire chiaroscuro a monochrome picture made by using several different shades of the same color choropleth map a map that uses graded differences in shading or color or the placing of symbols inside defined areas on the map in order to indicate the average values of some property or quantity in those areas closeup a photograph or video taken at close range collage , montage a paste-up made by sticking together pieces of paper or photographs to form an artistic image contour map , relief map a map having contour lines through points of equal elevation daguerreotype a photograph made by an early photographic process; the image was produced on a silver plate sensitized to iodine and developed in mercury vapor delineation , depiction , limning , line drawing a drawing of the outlines of forms or objects diagram a drawing intended to explain how something works; a drawing showing the relation between the parts duplicate , duplication a copy that corresponds to an original exactly blowup , enlargement , magnification a photographic print that has been enlarged autotype , facsimile an exact copy or reproduction figure a model of a bodily form (especially of a person) float an elaborate display mounted on a platform carried by a truck (or pulled by a truck) in a procession or parade foil , transparency picture consisting of a positive photograph or drawing on a transparent base; viewed with a projector frame a single one of a series of still transparent pictures forming a cinema, television or video film globe a sphere on which a map (especially of the earth) is represented glossy a photograph that is printed on smooth shiny paper computer graphic , graphic an image that is generated by a computer Guy an effigy of Guy Fawkes that is burned on a bonfire on Guy Fawkes Day headshot a photograph of a person's head hologram , holograph the intermediate photograph (or photographic record) that contains information for reproducing a three-dimensional image by holography iconography the images and symbolic representations that are traditionally associated with a person or a subject god , graven image , idol a material effigy that is worshipped imitation something copied or derived from an original inset a small picture inserted within the bounds or a larger one clone , knockoff an unauthorized copy or imitation likeness , semblance picture consisting of a graphic image of a person or thing longshot a photograph taken from a distance map projection a projection of the globe onto a flat map using a grid of lines of latitude and longitude mechanical drawing scale drawing of a machine or architectural plan etc, microdot photograph reduced to the size of a dot (usually for purposes of security) miniature , toy a copy that reproduces a person or thing in greatly reduced size mock-up full-scale working model of something built for study or testing or display modification slightly modified copy; not an exact copy arial mosaic , mosaic , photomosaic arrangement of aerial photographs forming a composite picture mug shot , mugshot a photograph of someone's face (especially one made for police records) cyclorama , diorama , panorama a picture (or series of pictures) representing a continuous scene pen-and-ink a drawing executed with pen and ink photocopy a photographic copy of written or printed or graphic work photographic print , print a printed picture produced from a photographic negative photomicrograph a photograph taken with the help of a microscope architectural plan , plan scale drawing of a structure planetarium an apparatus or model for representing the solar systems plat a map showing planned or actual features of an area (streets and building lots etc.) plate a full-page illustration (usually on slick paper) print a copy of a movie on film (especially a particular version of it) quadruplicate any four copies; any of four things that correspond to one another exactly radiogram , radiograph , shadowgraph , skiagram , skiagraph a photographic image produced on a radiosensitive surface by radiation other than visible light (especially by X-rays or gamma rays) restoration a model that represents the landscape of a former geological age or that represents and extinct animal etc. reflection , reflexion the image of something as reflected by a mirror (or other reflective material) rendering perspective drawing of an architect's design replica , replication , reproduction copy that is not the original; something that has been copied road map a map showing roads (for automobile travel) roughcast a rough preliminary model CAT scan , scan an image produced by scanning bird-scarer , scarecrow , scarer , straw man , strawman an effigy in the shape of a man to frighten birds away from seeds scene , scenery the painted structures of a stage set that are intended to suggest a particular locale doodle , scrabble , scribble an aimless drawing silhouette a drawing of the outline of an object; filled in with some uniform color silverpoint a drawing made on specially prepared paper with an instrument having a silver tip (15th and 16th centuries) sketch , study preliminary drawing for later elaboration sketch map a map drawn from observation (rather than from exact measurements) and representing the main features of an area shot , snap , snapshot an informal photograph; usually made with a small hand-held camera Snellen chart display consisting of a printed card with letters and numbers in lines of decreasing size; used to test visual acuity echogram , sonogram an image of a structure that is produced by ultrasonography (reflections of high-frequency sound waves); used to observe fetal growth or to study bodily organs spectacle an elaborate and remarkable display on a lavish scale spectrogram , spectrograph a photographic record of a spectrum stereo , stereoscopic photograph , stereoscopic picture two photographs taken from slightly different angles that appear three-dimensional when viewed together stick figure drawing of a human or animal that represents the head by a circle and the rest of the body by straight lines still a static photograph (especially one taken from a movie and used for advertising purposes) telephoto , telephotograph a photograph made with a telephoto lens telephotograph a photograph transmitted and reproduced over a distance time exposure a photograph produced with a relatively long exposure time trace , tracing a drawing created by superimposing a semitransparent sheet of paper on the original image and copying on it the lines of the original image triplicate one of three copies; any of three things that correspond to one another exactly vignette a photograph whose edges shade off gradually wax figure , waxwork an effigy (usually of a famous person) made of wax weather chart , weather map (meteorology) a map showing the principal meteorological elements at a given time and over an extended region wedding picture photographs of bride and groom and their friends taken at their wedding xerox , xerox copy a copy made by a xerographic printer scene , shot a consecutive series of pictures that constitutes a unit of action in a film letter , missive a written message addressed to a person or organization diorama a three-dimensional representation of a scene, in miniature or life-size, with figures and objects set against a background selfie a photograph that you take of yourself, typically with a digital camera pastel a drawing made with pastel sticks type of: creation an artifact that has been brought into existence by someone
• noun a performance of a play synonyms: histrionics , theatrical , theatrical performance see more see less types: matinee a theatrical performance held during the daytime (especially in the afternoon) type of: performance , public presentation a dramatic or musical entertainment
• noun a factual statement made by one party in order to induce another party to enter into a contract “the sales contract contains several representations by the vendor” see more see less type of: statement a message that is stated or declared; a communication (oral or written) setting forth particulars or facts etc
• noun a statement of facts and reasons made in appealing or protesting “certain representations were made concerning police brutality” see more see less type of: statement a message that is stated or declared; a communication (oral or written) setting forth particulars or facts etc
• noun the state of serving as an official and authorized delegate or agent synonyms: agency , delegacy see more see less types: free agency (sports) the state of a professional athlete who is free to negotiate a contract to play for any team legal representation personal representation that has legal status virus a harmful or corrupting agency type of: state the way something is with respect to its main attributes
• noun the right of being represented by delegates who have a voice in some legislative body see more see less type of: right an abstract idea of that which is due to a person or governmental body by law or tradition or nature
• noun a body of legislators that serve in behalf of some constituency “a Congressional vacancy occurred in the representation from California” see more see less type of: body a group of persons associated by some common tie or occupation and regarded as an entity

Vocabulary lists containing representation

The Colonies–Reconstruction (1600s–1877)

Declare your independence and master these words related to the American Revolution. Learn all about the conflict between the colonists and the redcoats, from the Boston Tea Party to the British surrender at Yorktown. Explore causes of the war and review major battles, key historical figures, and the structure of the new American republic.

To punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, the British Parliament enforced acts that the colonies found intolerable. In response, they convened the First Continental Congress in 1774 to outline a list of grievances, rights, and resolves. Read the full text here . Here are links to our lists for other notable declarations: Declaration of Colonial Rights , Declaration of the Rights of Man , Declaration of the Rights of Woman , Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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representation

• representation (noun)
• proportional representation (noun)
• He had no legal representation [=he did not have a lawyer] during the trial.
• Each state has equal representation in the Senate.
• The letters of the alphabet are representations of sounds.
• carved representations of flowers
• the film's heroic representation of America
• We discussed the representation of women in Jane Austen's novels.
• Her representation of the situation was very confusing.
• He was accused of making false representations .
• Our ambassador has made representations to their government.

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Examples of representation

Word of the Day

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towards the direction that is the opposite to the one in which you are facing

Robbing, looting, and embezzling: talking about stealing

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All resources related to 'representation'

Pronunciation of 'representation'.

Definitions of 'representation'

Synonyms of 'representation', collocations with the word 'representation', examples of 'representation'  in a sentence, translations of 'representation', 'representation' in other languages.

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Definition of representation noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

representation

Questions about grammar and vocabulary?

Find the answers with Practical English Usage online, your indispensable guide to problems in English.

• 3 representations [ plural ] ( formal ) formal statements made to someone in authority, especially in order to make your opinions known or to protest We have made representations to the mayor but without success.

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WRITERS HELPING WRITERS®

Helping writers become bestselling authors

Representation in Literature: Why It’s Important & How To Handle It

October 10, 2018 by ANGELA ACKERMAN

Happy to welcome Deborah Dixon , a passionate author, editor, and racial justice activist to talk a bit on Representation in Literature, a topic of importance and something I think many of us want to understand better so we can encourage the right sort of discussions and help bring about change. Please read on!

The issue of representation has become an important one in literature and throughout the entertainment industry. As an author and publisher of color, I am often asked to offer insight on how best to include characters of diverse backgrounds. Specifically, this means characters from minority or underrepresented groups, such as ethnic minorities, LGBTQIA+ persons, religious minorities, those with disabilities, and to some extent, socioeconomic minorities. In this article, I will use the term “minority” to refer to members of all of these groups.

First, my credentials: I am Jamaican, neurodivergent, and simultaneously a citizen of and immigrant to the United States, among other things. These credentials do matter, because the basis of a person’s regard for your opinion on these sensitive matters starts with your background. It isn’t the whole picture; not every minority person has the same breadth of experiences, and many majority members have been exposed to the problems that minority members face. Also, like anything else, background and privilege are nuanced. Even I have some sources of privilege: I am cisgender and not physically disabled.

Also valued is the nature of a writer’s privilege. I won’t discuss privilege and entitlement too much here, as there are plenty of resources on both, such as this exploration of the different elements of identity.

There are two primary reasons why representation is important: inclusivity and perception .

Seeing people who look, act, and experience life like them in media makes a person feel included in a society, and it reinforces positive views of themselves and what they can achieve in society. Also, members of other groups, especially majority groups, base their ideas of groups on what they see in the media . For example, a hiring manager who watches too many police procedurals might view candidates of minority races as having criminal tendencies.

For people who exist outside of these marginalized and underrepresented groups, it can be hard to imagine life with the experiences and hardships that minorities experience. Without those experiences, writing characters of diverse backgrounds can seem daunting.

A good start is to be cognizant of the problems that your character would face and when those problems would have to be addressed. People of minority groups are still people; we have similar needs and similar motivations. The main difference is in the ways that society and its structures are arrayed against any particular group.

Therefore, in some situations, it will be perfectly acceptable to write a minority character just as you would any other. If a character’s romantic relationships are never brought up, then their sexual orientation might be little more than a footnote. Likewise, a black student’s college career might be just like that of a white student if the college itself is diverse and tolerant.

However, if the character is placed in a situation where their identity would be a factor, then it would be irresponsible to overlook it. For example, a black character being pulled over by the police should be described as feeling exceptional anxiety over their possible treatment by the officers. Whether the writer feels that this is a legitimate fear is irrelevant; it is what black people experience, and it is a problem that we continue to battle . Any work that included a black character getting along famously with the police would be soundly ridiculed by the black community.

Also, it might be tempting to fall back on stereotypes, but these are harmful images that still negatively affect members of those minorities. Take, for example, the common use of Middle Eastern characters as villains , or the portrayal of Native Americans as oversexualized savages . If these are the characters that are being written, then we would rather not have them at all!

Remember that minority characters are not there to be “exotic” ornaments for your plot. One striking example I encountered as an editor was a white writer using an almost all-white cast who included an Asian woman as a manicurist. It was meant as a cheeky observation, but in practice, it supported yet another harmful stereotype, and it would have reinforced to readers that Asian woman are only fit to run nail salons.

Always Do the Research

There is plenty of first-hand material about the situations that minority groups face, and many companies, including mine , offer research specific to fiction writing. If you happen to know someone from the group that you are interested in writing about, then ask that person if they can offer any insight, and be prepared for them to possibly turn you down.

Finally, remember that this is a cultural exchange; you must offer something in return. Consider promoting minority authors. Don’t just tack on characters to be “diverse,” and don’t borrow elements from a group without context, such as European knights using scimitars because they’re “cool.”

For a well-known example of what not to do , observe J. K. Rowling’s approach to including Native Americans in the Potterverse. She combined the hundreds of Native American cultures into one homogenous “community,” reappropriated important cultural touchstones, and supported harmful narratives of Natives accepting white colonialism. Although she was called out on this , she has not publicly apologized or changed her approach.

The best recent example of representation being done right is a film: 2016’s The Accountant , in which the main character, played by Ben Affleck, is high-functioning autistic. While the character is written in a very predictable fashion—aural oversensitivity, emotional vacancy—Affleck’s performance provides nuance that elevates the entire story. It’s clear that he and his supporting cast did the research, and while the movie’s overall effect on the autistic community is debatable, many of us saw pieces of ourselves in its protagonist .

Although the entertainment industry at large is welcoming more content written by minority members, most stories that reach the mainstream are still ones written by the majority—white, straight people. The majority still has a much stronger voice. Use it to amplify positive portrayals of the people who need them the most.

As with anything else, when in doubt, ask.

Look for editors who specifically offer sensitivity reading as part of their processes. Many editors, like those at Shalamar, offer diversity feedback as a matter of course.  Here’s an additional resource to check out if you are incorporating diversity in your work:

Writing Diversity Checklist

We welcome respectful discussion–if you have questions or comments, debra is here to discuss.

Shalamar is a book publishing and author advocacy company based in New Orleans, Louisiana. Created in 2016 by a trio of writers, Shalamar aims to break down barriers to entry in publishing by offering accessible and affordable services to new and undiscovered writers.

The company also supports initiatives to amplify voices from underrepresented and marginalized groups. They can be found at @shalamarllp on Facebook and @ShalamarNOLA everywhere else.

Deborah Dixon is a cofounder, author, and editor at Shalamar . She has published two novels, seven novellas, and numerous short stories of her own.

She is a digital rights and racial justice activist, and her opinions on social issues, the publishing process, and Saints football can be found on Twitter at @Deboracracy .

Angela is a writing coach, international speaker, and bestselling author who loves to travel, teach, empower writers, and pay-it-forward. She also is a founder of One Stop For Writers , a portal to powerful, innovative tools to help writers elevate their storytelling.

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Reader Interactions

October 18, 2020 at 10:26 am

I believe that books are the essence of who we are and who we dream of being. Therefore, representation is a crucial component in building the identity of an individual and its sense of belonging. Reading about someone who looks like you makes you feel that you can achieve anything and that you truly belong in the society. Seeing someone just like me being reflected in a book makes me feel that I’m not the outsider that I always thought I was. However, there is indeed a lack of representation of minority groups in books. I totally agree that the lack of representation has become an important issue in literature and that minorities should be depicted more in books. In that being said however, any representation should not be accepted just because of the lack of it. Disrespectful and damaging representations of minorities should not be tolerated just for the sake of finally being represented in books.

August 13, 2019 at 11:26 pm

Great stuff, and the Shalamar tips before publishing are excellent and extensive! Thanks for this. Will help my Gr 12 English class think oppressive representation that occurs in some of these more subtle ways.

August 13, 2019 at 11:40 pm

August 22, 2019 at 3:51 pm

Thank you so much Wes, and best wishes for your English class! Glad you found this information and the resources helpful. Feel free to reach out if I can help further!

October 12, 2018 at 12:08 am

As a Native American author, I want to thank you for this post. Keep fighting the good fight!

It is hard to find books where people like me aren’t A) Sexy Shifters B) Poor C) Swindlers

Which is funny, since none of the Lenni-Lenape people that I know are any of those. Hang on… *runs outside, looks at the moon, tries real real extra super hard* Nope. Still not a shifter. Darn. 😉

My people also didn’t wear huge feather headdresses, live in teepees, say “howgh” for hello, or most of the other traits that perhaps were exhibited in the western tribes. We did, however, influence the creation of the original laws of this country, such as the Constitution and Bill of Rights. Obviously not well enough to be considered human until 1879, or be eligible to be citizen of the land we’d lived on for thousands of years until 1924, or get the Voting Rights Act fully nailed down (looking at two states right now…). But hey, we tried.

If anyone out there does have a book with well-written Lenni-Lenape characters, please track me down and drop a buy link. I’m always looking!

October 12, 2018 at 2:24 pm

Preach it! I would love to sit many, many non-Native writers (sadly, including some Black ones) down and have them write this sentence a few hundred times:

Native American communities are NOT monolithic.

As you can see above, I refuse to let Rowling live it down.

If anyone out there has a story will well-developed Lenni-Lenape characters, I just might publish it. 😉

October 11, 2018 at 10:02 pm

That’s definitely some great stuff, and I largely agree. I do take issue with simply saying there are some things you should “never do.” For example, making an autistic character have some unique strange ability can work if it’s done well or the usual cliches of the trope are subverted.

I’m not saying that just for the sake of debate. I have autism myself, and my current story in progress plays on that trope.

October 12, 2018 at 2:13 pm

Thank you Claire! And thanks for checking out our list!

The things that made it onto the Never-Do list aren’t there because they can’t be done well, but because when they are done (well or otherwise), they consistently cause harm to real, living people of that particular group.

Regarding autistic characters, I’ll go and change my wording on the list, but I did think specifically of powers that are related to a character’s autism, correcting the ‘imbalance’ of the disability. (An autistic character with, say, lightning powers, unrelated to her autism, would probably be okay.)

Objectively, a disability-superpower autistic character could possibly be done well, especially by an autistic writer, but I respectfully disagree that the character *should* be done even so. Even if the character was brilliant and an excellent role model, like a neurodivergent Wonder Woman, she would still be perpetrating objectifying stereotypes about how we need a ‘cure’ to balance out our deficiencies. It also isolates a model minority within the autistic community, as it elevates ‘superhuman’ autistics (ie savants) above others on the spectrum, valuing them more and devaluing the others as useless or helpless.

(Here’s an article that goes into model minorities more: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/why-good-doctor-is-bad-medicine-autism-1098809 )

So while this kind of character could work from a character-development standpoint, her existence would cause strain on those of us (like you and me) who deal with autism stereotypes regularly. My opinion is that the character isn’t worth the harm done, but we likely have different experiences and observations that lead to different conclusions. 🙂

October 11, 2018 at 9:15 pm

Wonderful! Very revelant!

October 12, 2018 at 1:29 pm

Thanks for reading, Traci!!

October 11, 2018 at 2:03 pm

First of all, Who Dat!!!

Thank you so much for writing this article, Deborah. I loved that you explained that a writer needs to remember that diverse characters are still human beings. I also hate that you had to say that.

I had a small press from Mississippi, where I’m from, reach out to me about wanting to work with me. The minute they found out I was a lesbian they quickly let me know that they could not work with a story with LGBTQ+ characters, because they wouldn’t know how to market it. It was shocking and saddening. Needless to say, I did not work with them.

Thank you again, and I look forward to checking out your company and your work!

October 11, 2018 at 4:12 pm

Yeah you rite Keli!!!!

I’m sorry to hear about your experience with that press! And yet I’m not surprised. The inclusion of underrepresented writers ourselves is another topic that I’m passionate about, and fortunately I get to work toward that goal through Shalamar.

Being treated that way, particularly by a press that sought you out, had to have stung, and rightfully so; but, with the benefit of hindsight, people that closed-minded would have been rough to work with anyway, so maybe it was for the better, rudeness and prejudice aside.

(Marketing professionals are specifically taught to adapt to different audience, genres, and trends, so that excuse is always code for “we don’t want to work with you.”)

I hope you found a much better home for your writing, and would love to hear from you anytime!

October 11, 2018 at 10:23 am

Glad to have you here discussing something that I think confuses a lot of people because sometimes we can see part of the picture, but not the whole thing and so we don’t necessarily realize the ripples that come from stereotypes or the level of inequity out there.

In our fiction it is our job to make the reader feel part of another’s point of view. I think as a Caucasian and a Caucasian author, I need to work harder to do what I can to make sure all voices are represented. Change comes about through understanding, and this happens at all levels from governing entities to the drivers of industries to the producers of content and the consumers of that content.

Thanks for being here!

October 11, 2018 at 9:06 am

Hi everyone! Angela, thank you SO MUCH for your help and your kindness! You are an inspiration to me as an author advocate. <3

Readers: Thanks for checking out this article! I am happy to answer any further questions you might have here. You can also contact me directly if you'd prefer a one-on-one conversation.

Much love from New Orleans!

October 11, 2018 at 9:03 am

Thanks for being here today, Deborah!

October 11, 2018 at 3:59 pm

Hi Becca! Thanks for having me! 🙂

[…] Ackerman talks about the importance of inclusivity and perception.   Inclusivity prescribes that the characters in the texts that we use should be as […]

[…] Deborah Dixon examine representation in literature: why it’s important and how to handle it. […]

Why Representation Matters and Why It’s Still Not Enough

Reflections on growing up brown, queer, and asian american..

Posted December 27, 2021 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• Positive media representation can be helpful in increasing self-esteem for people of marginalized groups (especially youth).
• Interpersonal contact and exposure through media representation can assist in reducing stereotypes of underrepresented groups.
• Representation in educational curricula and social media can provide validation and support, especially for youth of marginalized groups.

Growing up as a Brown Asian American child of immigrants, I never really saw anyone who looked like me in the media. The TV shows and movies I watched mostly concentrated on blonde-haired, white, or light-skinned protagonists. They also normalized western and heterosexist ideals and behaviors, while hardly ever depicting things that reflected my everyday life. For example, it was equally odd and fascinating that people on TV didn’t eat rice at every meal; that their parents didn’t speak with accents; or that no one seemed to navigate a world of daily microaggressions . Despite these observations, I continued to absorb this mass media—internalizing messages of what my life should be like or what I should aspire to be like.

Because there were so few media images of people who looked like me, I distinctly remember the joy and validation that emerged when I did see those representations. Filipino American actors like Ernie Reyes, Nia Peeples, Dante Basco, and Tia Carrere looked like they could be my cousins. Each time they sporadically appeared in films and television series throughout my youth, their mere presence brought a sense of pride. However, because they never played Filipino characters (e.g., Carrere was Chinese American in Wayne's World ) or their racial identities remained unaddressed (e.g., Basco as Rufio in Hook ), I did not know for certain that they were Filipino American like me. And because the internet was not readily accessible (nor fully informational) until my late adolescence , I could not easily find out.

Through my Ethnic Studies classes as an undergraduate student (and my later research on Asian American and Filipino American experiences with microaggressions), I discovered that my perspectives were not that unique. Many Asian Americans and other people of color often struggle with their racial and ethnic identity development —with many citing how a lack of media representation negatively impacts their self-esteem and overall views of their racial or cultural groups. Scholars and community leaders have declared mottos like how it's "hard to be what you can’t see," asserting that people from marginalized groups do not pursue career or academic opportunities when they are not exposed to such possibilities. For example, when women (and women of color specifically) don’t see themselves represented in STEM fields , they may internalize that such careers are not made for them. When people of color don’t see themselves in the arts or in government positions, they likely learn similar messages too.

Complicating these messages are my intersectional identities as a queer person of color. In my teens, it was heartbreakingly lonely to witness everyday homophobia (especially unnecessary homophobic language) in almost all television programming. The few visual examples I saw of anyone LGBTQ involved mostly white, gay, cisgender people. While there was some comfort in seeing them navigate their coming out processes or overcome heterosexism on screen, their storylines often appeared unrealistic—at least in comparison to the nuanced homophobia I observed in my religious, immigrant family. In some ways, not seeing LGBTQ people of color in the media kept me in the closet for years.

How representation can help

Representation can serve as opportunities for minoritized people to find community support and validation. For example, recent studies have found that social media has given LGBTQ young people the outlets to connect with others—especially when the COVID-19 pandemic has limited in-person opportunities. Given the increased suicidal ideation, depression , and other mental health issues among LGBTQ youth amidst this global pandemic, visibility via social media can possibly save lives. Relatedly, taking Ethnic Studies courses can be valuable in helping students to develop a critical consciousness that is culturally relevant to their lives. In this way, representation can allow students of color to personally connect to school, potentially making their educational pursuits more meaningful.

Further, representation can be helpful in reducing negative stereotypes about other groups. Initially discussed by psychologist Dr. Gordon Allport as Intergroup Contact Theory, researchers believed that the more exposure or contact that people had to groups who were different from them, the less likely they would maintain prejudice . Literature has supported how positive LGBTQ media representation helped transform public opinions about LGBTQ people and their rights. In 2019, the Pew Research Center reported that the general US population significantly changed their views of same-sex marriage in just 15 years—with 60% of the population being opposed in 2004 to 61% in favor in 2019. While there are many other factors that likely influenced these perspective shifts, studies suggest that positive LGBTQ media depictions played a significant role.

For Asian Americans and other groups who have been historically underrepresented in the media, any visibility can feel like a win. For example, Gold House recently featured an article in Vanity Fair , highlighting the power of Asian American visibility in the media—citing blockbuster films like Crazy Rich Asians and Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings . Asian American producers like Mindy Kaling of Never Have I Ever and The Sex Lives of College Girls demonstrate how influential creators of color can initiate their own projects and write their own storylines, in order to directly increase representation (and indirectly increase mental health and positive esteem for its audiences of color).

When representation is not enough

However, representation simply is not enough—especially when it is one-dimensional, superficial, or not actually representative. Some scholars describe how Asian American media depictions still tend to reinforce stereotypes, which may negatively impact identity development for Asian American youth. Asian American Studies is still needed to teach about oppression and to combat hate violence. Further, representation might also fail to reflect the true diversity of communities; historically, Brown Asian Americans have been underrepresented in Asian American media, resulting in marginalization within marginalized groups. For example, Filipino Americans—despite being the first Asian American group to settle in the US and one of the largest immigrant groups—remain underrepresented across many sectors, including academia, arts, and government.

Representation should never be the final goal; instead, it should merely be one step toward equity. Having a diverse cast on a television show is meaningless if those storylines promote harmful stereotypes or fail to address societal inequities. Being the “first” at anything is pointless if there aren’t efforts to address the systemic obstacles that prevent people from certain groups from succeeding in the first place.

Instead, representation should be intentional. People in power should aim for their content to reflect their audiences—especially if they know that doing so could assist in increasing people's self-esteem and wellness. People who have the opportunity to represent their identity groups in any sector may make conscious efforts to use their influence to teach (or remind) others that their communities exist. Finally, parents and teachers can be more intentional in ensuring that their children and students always feel seen and validated. By providing youth with visual representations of people they can relate to, they can potentially save future generations from a lifetime of feeling underrepresented or misunderstood.

Kevin Leo Yabut Nadal, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the City University of New York and the author of books including Microaggressions and Traumatic Stress .

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Popular Representation Guides

Stuart Hall and Representation

• The Male Gaze

What is Media Framing?

The representation of women on magazine covers, representation and the media.

Theories of representation argue that media products are not faithful or accurate reflections of reality because producers will always have to make important decisions about how the text is constructed. Think about a news broadcast. The way people, places, ideas and events are presented to the audience can be shaped by which direction the cameras were pointing, how the footage is cut and spliced into a narrative, the words used to describe the situation, and the music that accompanies the piece.

Signs are selected and combined to encode a message. Editors edit. Even selfies posted on social media are filtered. Representation, therefore, is the mediated version of reality.

• David Gauntlett and Identity

Feminist Theory and Theorists

Feminism analyses and explains the impact of social forces on gender, especially the experience of women. Do media representations of femininity and masculinity systematically reinforce inequality? Find out more in our guides.

• Liesbet van Zoonen

Judith Butler and Performativity

• bell hooks and Intersectionality

• The Bechdel Test

The Beauty Myth

Representation matters. The media can have a significant impact on how we see and understand each other. This is particularly important when the narratives convey hurtful and damaging misrepresentations. The following critical frameworks examines how ethnic-racial groups are depicted in the media.

• Paul Gilroy

Key Concepts in Post-colonial Theory

Audience positioning.

There is no doubt social and cultural contexts will affect the choices producers make when creating media texts. The following guides explore some of the processes which influence the representation of people, places and important issues.

Agenda-Setting Theory

Ideology and the Media

Stereotypes

• Exam Practice

Getting to grips with representation and the media is a challenge. If you want to develop your understanding of the key concepts, you need to analyse the representation of people, places and products in a broad range of media texts. The following examples are a good place to start.

Socialisation and Gender

Identity and Billie Eilish

Gladiator and the Representation of Masculinity

Recently added.

Rule of Thirds

The Classification of Advertisements

Narrative Functions

Key concepts.

• Cultivation Theory

The Speaking-Circuit

Media studies.

• The Study of Signs
• Ferdinand de Saussure and Signs
• Roland Barthes
• Charles Peirce’s Sign Categories
• Jean Baudrillard’s Simulacra and Simulation
• Binary Opposition
• Vladimir Propp
• Tzvetan Todorov
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• Barthes’ 5 Narrative Codes
• Key Concepts in Genre
• The Cultural Industries
• Hypodermic Needle Theory
• Two-Step Flow Theory
• Stuart Hall’s Reception Theory
• Abraham Maslow
• Uses and Gratifications
• Moral Panic
• Camera Shots
• Indicative Content
• Statement of Intent
• AQA A-Level

Principle Design Multiple Means of Representation

Udl guidelines.

The goal of UDL is learner agency that is purposeful & reflective, resourceful & authentic, strategic & action-oriented.

Design Multiple Means of Engagement

Design options for welcoming interests & identities ( guideline 7), optimize choice and autonomy ( consideration 7.1), optimize relevance, value, and authenticity ( consideration 7.2), nurture joy and play ( consideration 7.3), address biases, threats, and distractions ( consideration 7.4), design options for sustaining effort & persistence ( guideline 8), clarify the meaning and purpose of goals ( consideration 8.1), optimize challenge and support ( consideration 8.2), foster collaboration, interdependence, and collective learning ( consideration 8.3), foster belonging and community ( consideration 8.4), offer action-oriented feedback ( consideration 8.5), design options for emotional capacity ( guideline 9), recognize expectations, beliefs, and motivations ( consideration 9.1), develop awareness of self and others ( consideration 9.2), promote individual and collective reflection ( consideration 9.3), cultivate empathy and restorative practices ( consideration 9.4), design multiple means of representation, design options for perception ( guideline 1), support opportunities to customize the display of information ( consideration 1.1), support multiple ways to perceive information ( consideration 1.2), represent a diversity of perspectives and identities in authentic ways ( consideration 1.3), design options for language & symbols ( guideline 2), clarify vocabulary, symbols, and language structures ( consideration 2.1), support decoding of text, mathematical notation, and symbols ( consideration 2.2), cultivate understanding and respect across languages and dialects ( consideration 2.3), address biases in the use of language and symbols ( consideration 2.4), illustrate through multiple media ( consideration 2.5), design options for building knowledge ( guideline 3), connect prior knowledge to new learning ( consideration 3.1), highlight and explore patterns, critical features, big ideas, and relationships ( consideration 3.2), cultivate multiple ways of knowing and making meaning ( consideration 3.3), maximize transfer and generalization ( consideration 3.4), design multiple means of action & expression, design options for interaction ( guideline 4), vary and honor the methods for response, navigation, and movement ( consideration 4.1), optimize access to accessible materials and assistive and accessible technologies and tools ( consideration 4.2), design options for expression & communication ( guideline 5), use multiple media for communication ( consideration 5.1), use multiple tools for construction, composition, and creativity ( consideration 5.2), build fluencies with graduated support for practice and performance ( consideration 5.3), address biases related to modes of expression and communication ( consideration 5.4), design options for strategy development ( guideline 6), set meaningful goals ( consideration 6.1), anticipate and plan for challenges ( consideration 6.2), organize information and resources ( consideration 6.3), enhance capacity for monitoring progress ( consideration 6.4), challenge exclusionary practices ( consideration 6.5).

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Learners differ in the ways they perceive and make meaning of information. For example, those with sensory disabilities (e.g., blindness or deafness), learning disabilities (e.g., dyslexia), and those representing diverse or non-dominant cultures and/or languages all approach content differently. And these differing approaches must be honored and valued. Equally important is the consideration of how people, cultures, individual and collective identities, perspectives, and ways of knowing are represented within the content. Learning, and transfer of learning, occurs when multiple representations and perspectives are used, because they support learners to make connections within, as well as between, concepts. In short, there is not one means of representation that will be optimal for every learner ; providing options for representation is essential.

Representation | Guidelines & Considerations

Guideline 1 perception.

Interact with flexible content that offers multiple modalities and perspectives.

Consideration 1.1 Support opportunities to customize the display of information

Use accessible materials with settings that can be adjusted based on needs and preferences.

Consideration 1.2 Support multiple ways to perceive information

Share information in more ways than images and text alone.

Consideration 1.3 Represent a diversity of perspectives and identities in authentic ways

Learn from multiple and varying perspectives.

Guideline 2 Language & Symbols

Communicate through languages that create a shared understanding.

Consideration 2.1 Clarify vocabulary, symbols, and language structures

Construct meaning from words, symbols, and numbers using different representations.

Consideration 2.2 Support decoding of text, mathematical notation, and symbols

Make sure text and symbols don't get in the way of the learning goal.

Consideration 2.3 Cultivate understanding and respect across languages and dialects

Use translations, descriptions, movement, and images to support learning in unfamiliar or complex languages.

Consideration 2.4 Address biases in the use of language and symbols

Honor a wide variety of forms of language.

Consideration 2.5 Illustrate through multiple media

Make learning come alive with simulations, graphics, activities, and videos.

Guideline 3 Building Knowledge

Construct meaning and generate new understandings.

Consideration 3.1 Connect prior knowledge to new learning

Build connections to prior understandings and experiences.

Consideration 3.2 Highlight and explore patterns, critical features, big ideas, and relationships

Accentuate important information and how it relates to the learning goal.

Consideration 3.3 Cultivate multiple ways of knowing and making meaning

Honor multiple and diverse ways of developing understandings of the world.

Consideration 3.4 Maximize transfer and generalization

Apply learning to new contexts.

Representational Art: Definition and Guide

Representational art is an artistic style in which the artist attempts to depict a representation of real-life subject matter, that is recognisable to the viewer. This is opposed to non-representational art , which does not depict subjects, objects or scenes from the real world.

Art described as representational can be realistic, or less realistic. As long as the artist is attempting to capture a true-to-life resemblance of their subject, it can be considered representational.

This art form dates back centuries, with some artworks dating back to ancient times. From early cave paintings to Renaissance depictions of Biblical scenes, representational art has been used to express ideas and communicate stories for thousands of years.

Genres of Representational Art

Representational art falls into several distinct genres. Landscape painting, for instance, has been popular since the Renaissance and is still widely practised today. Portraiture and figure drawing are other traditional genres and can range from realistic to stylised interpretations depending on the artist’s preference. Still-life paintings are also popular and can depict anything from a simple bowl of fruit to a complex arrangement of objects.

History of Art and Representation

The history of art is vast and varied. Ancient cultures used representational art to tell stories and document events, while more recent movements such as the Renaissance saw a greater emphasis on realism in painting and sculpture. In the 20th century, it saw a resurgence with the rise of movements such as Realism and Pop Art.

Art Movements: How Representational Art Has Evolved

Art has been a tool of expression for humans since antiquity, with each period of history bringing a new evolution in the approach and perception of representational art. The classical era of Greek sculpture is an ideal example of early representational art, where artists sought an idealised, perfect form rather than an exact reflection of reality. The human body was depicted in harmonious proportions, embodying the cultural values of balance, order and beauty.

Renaissance and the Pursuit of Realism

The High Renaissance brought a shift in perspective, with artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo placing an emphasis on Realism. This was a time of great scientific and cultural advancement, and artists sought to depict the world around them with as much authenticity as possible, meticulously observing and capturing minute details of light, shadow, and anatomy.

Representing Subjective Experience During the Post-Impressionist Movement

By the late 19th to early 20th century, the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist movements emerged. Artists like Van Gogh and Gauguin began to move away from faithfully representing the physical world. Instead, they sought to express their inner experiences and emotions through bold colours and distorted forms. Here, art began its journey towards abstraction, and representational art took on a new dimension, serving not just as a mirror to the world but also as a window into the artist’s mind.

Representational vs. Non-Representational Art

The difference between representational and non-representational art lies in the way that it is produced. Art that is representational is based on representations of reality, while abstract or non-representational art does not depict anything from the real world. Abstract artists can use geometric shapes, colour schemes, or any combination of shapes and lines that do not form recognisable objects. While representational art can have an emotional or symbolic purpose, it is still rooted in the world of everyday experience. Non-representational art, on the other hand, abstains from any obvious reference to reality or pictorial representation.

How Artists Represent Subjects in Art

Artists create representational, or ‘true to life’ art by observing the forms of the subjects and objects they wish to recreate, by drawing shapes , determining accurate proportions or perspective and using colours that emulate that of the reference. This process is often done slowly, in stages. The artist will begin by sketching the basic outline of their subject, to establish the proportions, then add details such as texture and shade to create the impression of the subject’s form.

Representational art is a rewarding endeavour that requires patience and skill. It takes time to learn how to accurately capture the nuances of light and shadow, but with practice, it can be achieved.

Mediums Used for Representational Art

Representational art can be used in any medium, from painting and drawing to sculpture and even digital media. It can be used to create powerful pieces of artwork or simply as a means of documenting an event or moment in time. While realistic art is often thought of as traditional, it can also be used in a more modern context to create unique and interesting pieces of artwork. It is up to the artist how they choose to interpret and use this style of art.

What is Representational Art? (Explained with Examples)

When you look at an artwork, the first thing that crosses your mind is how attractive or unattractive the art is. While some artwork simply expresses aesthetic beauty, other artworks aim to pass a message or represent real situations. The latter type of art is known as representational art.

Keep reading to learn more about representational art including its history, its importance in the art world, and some of the styles most well-known artists.

Table of Contents

Definition Of Representational Art

(This article may contain affiliate links and I may earn a commission if you make a purchase)

Some representational artworks fuse abstract art with reality, but this doesn’t make it less of representational art. In other words, some representational artworks could depict real objects in a realistic way, but that is not required.

But, provided that it still has the basic elements related to something real, it is still considered a form of representational art.

Note #1 : Sometimes, Representational Art is referred to as Figurative Art even though it doesn’t have to contain figures.

A Brief History Of Representational Art

There are also ancient arts that date back as far as the Stone age. They usually represent real people and scenes and sometimes narrate the setting of their environment.

Over time, painting techniques have continued to develop and have undergone many stylistic changes. Despite the phases it’s gone through, figurative art has maintained the concept of presenting real-life objects as the subject of the painting.

The Importance Of Representational Art

Representational art serves as a guideline for artistic merit.

One of the major roles that representational paintings and other artworks play is that it sets a standard for evaluating the artistic excellence of an art piece . Evaluation of an artist’s work often depends on the authenticity and similarity it shares with the image the artist tried to recreate. With this, it is easier to differentiate outstanding works from average ones, especially in a portrait or still-life drawing. 

Representational Art Serves As A Starting Point For Artworks

As a result, beginners favor representational art as it helps hone basic artistic skills and helps them graduate into more complicated art forms.

Representational Arts Is Easily Accessible

Artists who have created well-known representational works of art.

There have been many works of art that artists have created over the years that depict real-life things and people. Some of them are exceptional examples of representational art. Each artwork depicts a specific subject matter such as a person, a still-life, an animal, or a landscape. 

Let’s take a look at some of these famous Representational artworks and the artists who created them.

Paul Cezanne’s Masterpiece, Four Apples 

Cézanne used this technique to bring out the colors of the subjects he was painting, allowing him to produce works of art that were lifelike in their appearance.

This ability to depict the fruit exactly as he saw it allowed Cézanne to avoid any possibility of his work being misinterpreted by the public at large.

Joaqun Sorolla’s Valencian Fishermen 

Valencian Fishermen is a simple picture that Sorolla painted in 1895 during the period of the Impressionist movement. By giving his painting such a straightforward title, Joaquin Sorolla could convey exactly what his artwork was about.

Stanley Spencer’s Turkeys

Turkeys demonstrated the painters’ ability to accurately portray animal representations in an incredibly realistic and representational manner. In this picture, Sir Stanley Spencer painted turkeys in the backyard of someone’s home. These turkeys were the focal point of the painting. Thus, they were the first things an admirer saw. 

Algernon Newton’s The Surrey Canal, Camberwell 

Because of the incredible attention to detail and realism he used in his artwork, galleries regard this painting as a notable example of Representational art .

Although Newton painted The Surrey Canal, Camberwell with great precision, the artwork’s quality stems from a different fact. The painting gives spectators the sense that they are looking at a photograph of the canal rather than a painting of it.

A Few Final Thoughts About The Representational Style

Representational art continues to make history, and the style often gives artists a starting point for an artwork.

More From Artistry Found

Similar posts, pop art vs. cubism: what’s the difference (w/examples), why is modern art so bad (what you need to know), the beginner’s guide to conceptual art: what’s the big deal, street art vs graffiti (how are they different), what is assemblage art (explained), what is autobiographical art (explained).

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Different ways to represent Signed Integer

A signed intege r is an integer with a positive ‘+’ or negative sign ‘-‘ associated with it. Since the computer only understands binary, it is necessary to represent these signed integers in binary form.

In binary, signed Integer can be represented in three ways:

• Signed bit .
• 1’s Complement .
• 2’s Complement .

Let us see why 2’s complement is considered to be the best method.

Signed bit Representation

In the signed integer representation method the following rules are followed:

1. The MSB (Most Significant Bit) represents the sign of the Integer. 2. Magnitude is represented by other bits other than MSB i.e. (n-1) bits where n is the no. of bits. 3. If the number is positive, MSB is 0 else 1. 4. The range of signed integer representation of an n-bit number is given as –(2^{n-1}-1) to (2)^{n-1}-1.

Let n = 4 Range:  –(2^{4-1}-1)    to 2^{4-1}-1     = -(2^{3}-1)    to 2^{3}-1   = -(7)   to+7 For 4 bit representation, minimum value=-7 and maximum value=+7

Signed bit Representation:

1. For 0, there are two representations: -0 and +0 which should not be the case as 0 is neither –ve nor +ve. 2. Out of 2^n bits for representation, we are able to utilize only 2^{n-1}  bits. 3. Numbers are not in cyclic order i.e. After the largest number (in this, for example, +7) the next number is not the least number (in this, for example, +0). 4. For negative numbers signed extension does not work.

Example: Signed extension for +5

Signed extension for -5 

5. As we can see above, for +ve representation, if 4 bits are extended to 5 bits there is a need to just append 0 in MSB. 6. But if the same is done in –ve representation we won’t get the same number. i.e. 10101 ≠ 11101.

1’s Complement representation of a signed integer

In 1’s complement representation the following rules are used:

1. For +ve numbers the representation rules are the same as signed integer representation. 2. For –ve numbers, we can follow any one of the two approaches:   

• Write the +ve number in binary and take 1’s complement of it.

1’s complement of 0 = 1 and 1’s complement of 1 = 0  Example: (-5) in 1’s complement:  +5 = 0101 -5 = 1010                 

• Write Unsigned representation of 2^n-1-X for –X.           

Example: –X = -5      for n=4 2^4-1-5=10 ->1010(Unsigned)

3. The range of 1’s complement integer representation of n-bit number is given as –(2^{n-1}-1) to 2^{n-1}-1.

1’s Complement Representation:

Drawbacks :

• For 0, there are two representations: -0 and +0 which should not be the case as 0 is neither –ve nor +ve.
• Out of 2^n bits for representation, we are able to utilize only 2^{n-1} bits.

Merits over Signed bit representation:

1. Numbers are in cyclic order i.e. after the largest number (in this, for example, +7) the next number is the least number (in this, for example, -7). 2. For negative number signed extension works.

Signed extension for -5

3. As it can be seen above, for +ve as well as -ve representation, if 4 bits are extended to 5 bits there is a need to just append 0/1 respectively in MSB.

2’s Complement representation

In 2’s Complement representation the following rules are used:

1. For +ve numbers, the representation rules are the same as signed integer representation. 2. For –ve numbers, there are two different ways we can represent the number.

• Write an unsigned representation of 2^n-X for –X in n-bit representation.

Example: (-5) in 4-bit representation  2^4-5=11   -→1011(unsigned)

• Write a representation of +X and take 2’s Complement.         

To take 2’s complement simply take 1’s complement and add 1 to it.     Example: (-5) in 2’s complement (+5) = 0101  1’s complement of (+5) = 1010  Add 1 in 1010:  1010+1 = 1011 Therefore (-5) = 1011

3. Range of representation of n-bit is –(2^{n-1} )  to (2)^{(n-1)-1}.

2’s Complement representation (4 bits)

• No ambiguity in the representation of 0.
• Numbers are in cyclic order i.e. after +7 comes -8.
• Signed Extension works.
• The range of numbers that can be represented using 2’s complement is very high.

Due to all of the above merits of 2’s complement representation of a signed integer, binary numbers are represented using 2’s complement method instead of signed bit and 1’s complement.  

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What Is a Simple Random Sample?

• How It Works
• Conducting a Simple Random Sample

Random Sampling Techniques

• Simple Random vs. Other Methods
• Pros and Cons
• Simple Random Sample FAQs

The Bottom Line

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Simple Random Sampling: 6 Basic Steps With Examples

Adam Hayes, Ph.D., CFA, is a financial writer with 15+ years Wall Street experience as a derivatives trader. Besides his extensive derivative trading expertise, Adam is an expert in economics and behavioral finance. Adam received his master's in economics from The New School for Social Research and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in sociology. He is a CFA charterholder as well as holding FINRA Series 7, 55 & 63 licenses. He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

A simple random sample is a subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. A simple random sample is meant to be an unbiased representation of a group.

Key Takeaways

• A simple random sample takes a small, random portion of the entire population to represent the entire data set, where each member has an equal probability of being chosen.
• Researchers can create a simple random sample using methods such as lotteries or random draws.
• A sampling error can occur with a simple random sample if the sample does not end up accurately reflecting the population it is supposed to represent.
• Simple random samples are determined by assigning sequential values to each item within a population, then randomly selecting those values.
• Systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling are other types of sampling approaches that may be used instead of simple random sampling.

Investopedia / Madelyn Goodnight

Understanding a Simple Random Sample

Researchers can create a simple random sample using a couple of methods. With a lottery method, each member of the population is assigned a number, and numbers are then selected at random.

An example of a simple random sample would be to choose the names of 25 employees out of a hat from a company of 250 employees. In this case the population is all 250 employees, and the sample is random because each employee has an equal chance of being chosen. Random sampling is used in science to conduct randomized control tests or for blinded experiments.

The example in which the names of 25 employees out of 250 are chosen out of a hat is an example of the lottery method at work. Each of the 250 employees would be assigned a number between one and 250, after which 25 of those numbers would be chosen at random.

Because individuals who make up the subset of the larger group are chosen at random, each individual in the large population set has the same probability of being selected. In most cases this creates a balanced subset that carries the greatest potential for representing the larger group as a whole.

A manual lottery method can be quite onerous for larger populations. Selecting a random sample from a large population usually requires a computer-generated process. The same methodology as the lottery method is used, only the number assignments and subsequent selections are performed by computers, not humans.

Room for Error

With a simple random sample, there has to be room for error represented by a plus and minus variance ( sampling error ). For example, if a survey is taken to determine how many students are left-handed in a high school of 1,000 students, random sampling can determine that eight out of the 100 sampled are left-handed. The conclusion would then be that 8% of the student population of the high school are left-handed, when in fact the global average would be closer to 10%.

The same is true regardless of the subject matter. A survey on the percentage of the student population that has green eyes or a physical disability would result in a mathematical probability based on a simple random survey, but always with a plus or minus variance. The only way to have 100% accuracy rate would be to survey all 1,000 students which, while possible, would be impractical.

Although simple random sampling is intended to be an unbiased approach to surveying, sample selection bias can occur. When a sample set of the larger population is not inclusive enough, representation of the full population is skewed and requires additional sampling techniques.

How to Conduct a Simple Random Sample

The simple random sampling process entails six steps, each performed in sequential order.

Step 1: Define the Population

The starting point of statistical analysis is to determine the population base. This is the group about which you wish to learn more, confirm a hypothesis , or determine a statistical outcome. This step is simply to identify what that population base is and ensure that the group will adequately cover the outcome you are trying to ascertain.

Example: You want to learn how the stocks of the largest companies in the United States have performed over the past 20 years. Your population would be the largest companies in the United States as determined by the S&P 500.

Step 2: Choose the Sample Size

Before picking the units within a population, we need to determine how many to select. This sample size may be constrained by the amount of time, capital rationing , or other resources available to analyze the sample. However, be mindful to pick a sample size large enough to be genuinely representative of the population. In the example above, there are constraints in analyzing the performance for every stock in the S&P 500, so we only want to analyze a subset of this population.

Example: Your sample size will be 20 companies from the S&P 500.

Step 3: Determine Population Units

In our example the items within the population are easy to determine, as they've already been identified for us (i.e., the companies listed within the S&P 500). However, imagine analyzing the students currently enrolled at a university or food products being sold at a grocery store. This step entails crafting the entire list of all items within your population.

Example: Using exchange information, you copy the companies comprising the S&P 500 into an Excel spreadsheet.

Step 4: Assign Numerical Values

The simple random sample process calls for every unit within the population to receive an unrelated numerical value. This is often assigned based on how the data may be filtered. For example, you could assign the numbers one to 500 to the companies based on market cap , alphabetical order, or company formation date. How the values are assigned isn’t relevant; all that matters is that each value is sequential and has an equal chance of being selected.

Example: You assign the numbers one through 500 to the companies in the S&P 500 based on alphabetical order of the current CEO's surname, with the first company receiving the value one and the last company receiving the value 500.

Step 5: Select Random Values

In step 2 we chose 20 as the number of items we wanted to analyze within our population. We now randomly select 20 number values out of the 500. There are multiple ways to do this, as discussed later in this article.

Example: Using a random number table (see below), you select the numbers 2, 7, 17, 67, 68, 75, 77, 87, 92, 101, 145, 201, 222, 232, 311, 333, 376, 401, 478, and 489.

Step 6: Identify the Sample

Each of the random variables selected in the prior step corresponds to an item within our population. The group sample is selected by identifying which random values were chosen and which population items those values match.

Example: Your sample consists of the companies that correspond to the values chosen in step 5.

There is no single method for determining the random values to be selected in step 5. The analyst can’t choose completely random numbers on their own, as there may be factors influencing their decision. For example, the analyst’s wedding anniversary may be the 24th, so they may consciously (or subconsciously) pick the random value 24. Instead, the analyst may choose one of the following methods:

• Random lottery : Each population number receives an equivalent item, say a ping pong ball or slip of paper, on which it is written, and those items are stored in a box. Random numbers are then selected by pulling items from the container without looking at them.
• Physical methods : Simple, early methods of random selection may use dice, flipping coins, or spinning wheels. Each outcome is assigned a value or outcome relating to the population.
• Random number table : Many statistics and research books contain sample tables with randomized numbers.
• Online random number generator : Many online tools exist where an analyst inputs first the population size and then the sample size to be selected.
• Random numbers from Excel : Numbers can be selected in Excel using the =RANDBETWEEN formula. A cell containing =RANDBETWEEN(1,5) will select a single random number between one and 5.

When pulling together a sample, consider getting assistance from a colleague or an independent person. They may be able to identify biases or discrepancies of which you may not be aware.

Simple Random vs. Other Sampling Methods

Simple random vs. stratified random sample.

A simple random sample is used to represent the entire data population. A stratified random sample divides the population into smaller groups, known as “strata,” based on shared characteristics.

Unlike simple random samples, stratified random samples are used with populations that can be easily broken into different subgroups or subsets. These groups are based on certain criteria, then elements from each are randomly chosen in proportion to the group’s size versus the population. In our example above, S&P 500 companies could have subsets defined by type of industry or geographical region of the company’s headquarters.

This method of sampling means there will be selections from each different group—the size of which is based on its proportion to the entire population. Researchers must ensure that the strata do not overlap. Every point in the population must only belong to one stratum, because they should be  mutually exclusive . Overlapping strata would increase the likelihood that some data are included, thus skewing the sample.

Simple Random vs. Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling entails selecting a single random variable that determines the interval of how the population items are selected. For example, if the number 37 was chosen, the 37th company on the list sorted by last name of the CEO would be selected by the sample. Then, the 74th (i.e., the next 37th) and the 111st (i.e. the next 37th after that) would be added as well.

Simple random sampling does not have a starting point; therefore, there is the risk that the population items selected at random may cluster. In our example there may be an abundance of CEOs with a last name that starts with the letter 'F.' Systematic sampling strives to even further reduce bias by ensuring that these clusters do not happen.

Simple Random vs. Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling (also known as “multistage random sampling”) can occur as a one-stage or two-stage cluster. In the former, items within a population are put into comparable groupings (using our example, companies are grouped by year formed), then sampling occurs within these clusters.

Two-stage cluster sampling occurs when clusters are formed through random selection. The population is not clustered with other similar items. Sample items are then randomly selected within each cluster.

Simple random sampling does not cluster any population sets. Clustering (especially two-stage clustering) can enhance the randomness of sample items. In addition, cluster sampling may provide a deeper analysis on a specific snapshot of a population, which may or may not enhance the analysis.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Simple Random Samples

While simple random samples are easy to use, they do come with key disadvantages that can render the data useless.

Advantages of a Simple Random Sample

Ease of use represents the biggest advantage of simple random sampling. Unlike more complicated sampling methods, such as stratified random sampling and probability sampling, there is no need to divide the population into subpopulations or take any other additional steps before selecting members of the population at random.

A simple random sample is meant to be an unbiased representation of a group. It is considered a fair way to select a sample from a larger population, as every member of the population has an equal chance of getting selected. Therefore, it has less chance of sampling bias.

Disadvantages of a Simple Random Sample

A sampling error can occur with a simple random sample if the sample does not end up accurately reflecting the population it is supposed to represent. For example, in a simple random sample of 25 employees, it would be possible to draw 25 men even if the population consisted of 125 women, 125 men, and 125 nonbinary people.

For this reason simple random sampling is more commonly used when the researcher knows little about the population. If the researcher knows more, it is better to use a different sampling technique, such as stratified random sampling, which helps to account for the differences within the population, such as age, race, or gender.

Other disadvantages include the fact that for sampling from large populations, the process can be time-consuming and costly compared with other methods. Researchers may find that a project not worth the endeavor of its cost-benefit analysis does not generate positive results.

As every unit has to be assigned an identifying or sequential number prior to the selection process, this task may be difficult based on the method of data collection or size of the data set.

Simple Random Sampling

Each item within a population has an equal chance of being selected.

There is less of a chance of sampling bias, as every item is randomly selected.

It is easy and convenient for data sets already listed or digitally stored.

Incomplete population demographics may exclude certain groups from being sampled.

Random selection means the sample may not be truly representative of the population.

Depending on the data set size and format, random sampling may be a time-intensive process.

Why Is a Simple Random Sample Simple?

No easier method exists to extract a research sample from a larger population than simple random sampling. Selecting enough subjects completely at random from the larger population also yields a sample that can be representative of the group being studied.

What Are Some Drawbacks of a Simple Random Sample?

Among the disadvantages of this technique are difficulty gaining access to respondents that can be drawn from the larger population, greater time, greater costs, and the fact that bias can still occur under certain circumstances.

What Is a Stratified Random Sample?

A stratified random sample first divides the population into smaller groups, or strata, based on shared characteristics. Therefore, a stratified sampling strategy will ensure that members from each subgroup are included in the data analysis. Stratified sampling is used to highlight differences among groups in a population, as opposed to simple random sampling, which treats all members of a population as equal, with an equal likelihood of being sampled.

How Are Random Samples Used?

Using simple random sampling allows researchers to make generalizations about a specific population and leave out any bias. Using statistical techniques, inferences and predictions can be made about the population without having to survey or collect data from every individual in that population.

Simple random sampling is the most basic form of analyzing a population, allowing every item within it to have the same probability of being selected. There are also more complicated sampling methods that attempt to correct for possible shortcomings in the simple method. However, they don’t match the ease of simple random sampling for smaller populations.

Yale University. " Sampling. "

Business Research Methodology. " Simple Random Sampling ."

U.S. Department of Commerce: National Institute of Standards and Technology. " Appendix B. Random Number Tables. "

Calculator.net. " Random Number Generator. "

Microsoft. " RANDBETWEEN Function ."

Penn State University Eberly College of Science. " 8.1 - Systematic Sampling ."

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