mechanics of writing a research paper

Mechanics of Writing

• January 2022
• In book: The Pathway to Publishing: A Guide to Quantitative Writing in the Health Sciences (pp.57-66)
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

Abstract and Figures

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations
• REV GEN PSYCHOL

• ANNU REV ANTHROPOL

• Peter D. Killworth

• AM J TROP MED HYG

• Stewart P. Granger
• Stephen P Luby
• BMC PUBLIC HEALTH

• A. Bradford-Hill
• J Am Med Assoc

• Kristen Munger
• Shleby J. Harris
• Tyler J. VanderWeele

• J Roy Stat Soc

• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing a Research Paper

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

The Research Paper

There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.

Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can achieve great things through their research and writing.

The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper:

• Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper.
• Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses themselves.
• Identifying an Audience - This section will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
• Where Do I Begin - This section concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research paper.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Academic writing
• A step-by-step guide to the writing process

The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips

Published on April 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 8, 2023.

Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.

The writing process looks different for everyone, but there are five basic steps that will help you structure your time when writing any kind of text.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Table of contents

Step 1: prewriting, step 2: planning and outlining, step 3: writing a first draft, step 4: redrafting and revising, step 5: editing and proofreading, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the writing process.

Before you start writing, you need to decide exactly what you’ll write about and do the necessary research.

Coming up with a topic

If you have to come up with your own topic for an assignment, think of what you’ve covered in class— is there a particular area that intrigued, interested, or even confused you? Topics that left you with additional questions are perfect, as these are questions you can explore in your writing.

The scope depends on what type of text you’re writing—for example, an essay or a research paper will be less in-depth than a dissertation topic . Don’t pick anything too ambitious to cover within the word count, or too limited for you to find much to say.

Narrow down your idea to a specific argument or question. For example, an appropriate topic for an essay might be narrowed down like this:

Doing the research

Once you know your topic, it’s time to search for relevant sources and gather the information you need. This process varies according to your field of study and the scope of the assignment. It might involve:

• Searching for primary and secondary sources .
• Reading the relevant texts closely (e.g. for literary analysis ).
• Collecting data using relevant research methods (e.g. experiments , interviews or surveys )

From a writing perspective, the important thing is to take plenty of notes while you do the research. Keep track of the titles, authors, publication dates, and relevant quotations from your sources; the data you gathered; and your initial analysis or interpretation of the questions you’re addressing.

Especially in academic writing , it’s important to use a logical structure to convey information effectively. It’s far better to plan this out in advance than to try to work out your structure once you’ve already begun writing.

Creating an essay outline is a useful way to plan out your structure before you start writing. This should help you work out the main ideas you want to focus on and how you’ll organize them. The outline doesn’t have to be final—it’s okay if your structure changes throughout the writing process.

Use bullet points or numbering to make your structure clear at a glance. Even for a short text that won’t use headings, it’s useful to summarize what you’ll discuss in each paragraph.

An outline for a literary analysis essay might look something like this:

• Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
• Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
• Introduce the research question: How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
• Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
• Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
• Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
• Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
• Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
• Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
• Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
• Answer the research question
• Indicate areas for further study

Once you have a clear idea of your structure, it’s time to produce a full first draft.

This process can be quite non-linear. For example, it’s reasonable to begin writing with the main body of the text, saving the introduction for later once you have a clearer idea of the text you’re introducing.

To give structure to your writing, use your outline as a framework. Make sure that each paragraph has a clear central focus that relates to your overall argument.

Hover over the parts of the example, from a literary analysis essay on Mansfield Park , to see how a paragraph is constructed.

The character of Mrs. Norris provides another example of the performance of morals in Mansfield Park . Early in the novel, she is described in scathing terms as one who knows “how to dictate liberality to others: but her love of money was equal to her love of directing” (p. 7). This hypocrisy does not interfere with her self-conceit as “the most liberal-minded sister and aunt in the world” (p. 7). Mrs. Norris is strongly concerned with appearing charitable, but unwilling to make any personal sacrifices to accomplish this. Instead, she stage-manages the charitable actions of others, never acknowledging that her schemes do not put her own time or money on the line. In this way, Austen again shows us a character whose morally upright behavior is fundamentally a performance—for whom the goal of doing good is less important than the goal of seeming good.

When you move onto a different topic, start a new paragraph. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas.

The goal at this stage is to get a draft completed, not to make everything perfect as you go along. Once you have a full draft in front of you, you’ll have a clearer idea of where improvement is needed.

Give yourself a first draft deadline that leaves you a reasonable length of time to revise, edit, and proofread before the final deadline. For a longer text like a dissertation, you and your supervisor might agree on deadlines for individual chapters.

Now it’s time to look critically at your first draft and find potential areas for improvement. Redrafting means substantially adding or removing content, while revising involves making changes to structure and reformulating arguments.

Evaluating the first draft

It can be difficult to look objectively at your own writing. Your perspective might be positively or negatively biased—especially if you try to assess your work shortly after finishing it.

It’s best to leave your work alone for at least a day or two after completing the first draft. Come back after a break to evaluate it with fresh eyes; you’ll spot things you wouldn’t have otherwise.

When evaluating your writing at this stage, you’re mainly looking for larger issues such as changes to your arguments or structure. Starting with bigger concerns saves you time—there’s no point perfecting the grammar of something you end up cutting out anyway.

Right now, you’re looking for:

• Arguments that are unclear or illogical.
• Areas where information would be better presented in a different order.
• Passages where additional information or explanation is needed.
• Passages that are irrelevant to your overall argument.

For example, in our paper on Mansfield Park , we might realize the argument would be stronger with more direct consideration of the protagonist Fanny Price, and decide to try to find space for this in paragraph IV.

For some assignments, you’ll receive feedback on your first draft from a supervisor or peer. Be sure to pay close attention to what they tell you, as their advice will usually give you a clearer sense of which aspects of your text need improvement.

Redrafting and revising

Once you’ve decided where changes are needed, make the big changes first, as these are likely to have knock-on effects on the rest. Depending on what your text needs, this step might involve:

• Making changes to your overall argument.
• Reordering the text.
• Cutting parts of the text.
• Adding new text.

You can go back and forth between writing, redrafting and revising several times until you have a final draft that you’re happy with.

Think about what changes you can realistically accomplish in the time you have. If you are running low on time, you don’t want to leave your text in a messy state halfway through redrafting, so make sure to prioritize the most important changes.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Editing focuses on local concerns like clarity and sentence structure. Proofreading involves reading the text closely to remove typos and ensure stylistic consistency. You can check all your drafts and texts in minutes with an AI proofreader .

Editing for grammar and clarity

When editing, you want to ensure your text is clear, concise, and grammatically correct. You’re looking out for:

• Grammatical errors.
• Ambiguous phrasings.
• Redundancy and repetition .

In your initial draft, it’s common to end up with a lot of sentences that are poorly formulated. Look critically at where your meaning could be conveyed in a more effective way or in fewer words, and watch out for common sentence structure mistakes like run-on sentences and sentence fragments:

• Austen’s style is frequently humorous, her characters are often described as “witty.” Although this is less true of Mansfield Park .
• Austen’s style is frequently humorous. Her characters are often described as “witty,” although this is less true of Mansfield Park .

To make your sentences run smoothly, you can always use a paraphrasing tool to rewrite them in a clearer way.

Proofreading for small mistakes and typos

When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:

• Spelling errors.
• Missing words.
• Confused word choices .
• Punctuation errors .
• Missing or excess spaces.

Use a grammar checker , but be sure to do another manual check after. Read through your text line by line, watching out for problem areas highlighted by the software but also for any other issues it might have missed.

For example, in the following phrase we notice several errors:

• Mary Crawfords character is a complicate one and her relationships with Fanny and Edmund undergoes several transformations through out the novel.
• Mary Crawford’s character is a complicated one, and her relationships with both Fanny and Edmund undergo several transformations throughout the novel.

Proofreading for stylistic consistency

There are several issues in academic writing where you can choose between multiple different standards. For example:

• Whether you use the serial comma .
• Whether you use American or British spellings and punctuation (you can use a punctuation checker for this).
• Where you use numerals vs. words for numbers.
• How you capitalize your titles and headings.

Unless you’re given specific guidance on these issues, it’s your choice which standards you follow. The important thing is to consistently follow one standard for each issue. For example, don’t use a mixture of American and British spellings in your paper.

Additionally, you will probably be provided with specific guidelines for issues related to format (how your text is presented on the page) and citations (how you acknowledge your sources). Always follow these instructions carefully.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

 (AI) Tools

• Grammar Checker
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Text Summarizer
• AI Detector
• Plagiarism Checker
• Citation Generator

Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, December 08). The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved August 5, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/writing-process/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, how to create a structured research paper outline | example, quick guide to proofreading | what, why and how to proofread, academic paragraph structure | step-by-step guide & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Purpose of Research – Objectives and Applications

Appendices – Writing Guide, Types and Examples

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and...

Research Approach – Types Methods and Examples

Research Paper Title Page – Example and Making...

Implications in Research – Types, Examples and...

Writing a Research Paper

This page lists some of the stages involved in writing a library-based research paper.

Although this list suggests that there is a simple, linear process to writing such a paper, the actual process of writing a research paper is often a messy and recursive one, so please use this outline as a flexible guide.

Discovering, Narrowing, and Focusing a Researchable Topic

• Try to find a topic that truly interests you
• Try writing your way to a topic
• Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic
• Pose your topic as a question to be answered or a problem to be solved

Finding, Selecting, and Reading Sources

You will need to look at the following types of sources:

• library catalog, periodical indexes, bibliographies, suggestions from your instructor
• primary vs. secondary sources
• journals, books, other documents

Grouping, Sequencing, and Documenting Information

The following systems will help keep you organized:

• a system for noting sources on bibliography cards
• a system for organizing material according to its relative importance
• a system for taking notes

Writing an Outline and a Prospectus for Yourself

Consider the following questions:

• What is the topic?
• Why is it significant?
• What background material is relevant?
• What is my thesis or purpose statement?
• What organizational plan will best support my purpose?

Writing the Introduction

In the introduction you will need to do the following things:

• present relevant background or contextual material
• define terms or concepts when necessary
• explain the focus of the paper and your specific purpose
• reveal your plan of organization

Writing the Body

• Use your outline and prospectus as flexible guides
• Build your essay around points you want to make (i.e., don’t let your sources organize your paper)
• Integrate your sources into your discussion
• Summarize, analyze, explain, and evaluate published work rather than merely reporting it
• Move up and down the “ladder of abstraction” from generalization to varying levels of detail back to generalization

Writing the Conclusion

• If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to add your points up, to explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction.
• Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research.

Revising the Final Draft

• Check overall organization : logical flow of introduction, coherence and depth of discussion in body, effectiveness of conclusion.
• Paragraph level concerns : topic sentences, sequence of ideas within paragraphs, use of details to support generalizations, summary sentences where necessary, use of transitions within and between paragraphs.
• Sentence level concerns: sentence structure, word choices, punctuation, spelling.
• Documentation: consistent use of one system, citation of all material not considered common knowledge, appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes, accuracy of list of works cited.

Academic and Professional Writing

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Analysis Papers

Reading Poetry

A Short Guide to Close Reading for Literary Analysis

Using Literary Quotations

Play Reviews

Writing a Rhetorical Précis to Analyze Nonfiction Texts

Incorporating Interview Data

Grant Proposals

Planning and Writing a Grant Proposal: The Basics

Additional Resources for Grants and Proposal Writing

Job Materials and Application Essays

Writing Personal Statements for Ph.D. Programs

• Before you begin: useful tips for writing your essay
• Guided brainstorming exercises
• Get more help with your essay
• Frequently Asked Questions

Resume Writing Tips

CV Writing Tips

Cover Letters

Business Letters

Proposals and Dissertations

Resources for Proposal Writers

Resources for Dissertators

Research Papers

Planning and Writing Research Papers

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Writing Annotated Bibliographies

Creating Poster Presentations

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Thank-You Notes

Advice for Students Writing Thank-You Notes to Donors

Reading for a Review

Critical Reviews

Writing a Review of Literature

Scientific Reports

Scientific Report Format

Sample Lab Assignment

Writing for the Web

Writing an Effective Blog Post

Writing for Social Media: A Guide for Academics

• Locations and Hours
• UCLA Library
• Research Guides
• Research Tips and Tools

Advanced Research Methods

Writing the research paper.

• What Is Research?
• Library Research
• Writing a Research Proposal

Before Writing the Paper

Methods, thesis and hypothesis, clarity, precision and academic expression, format your paper, typical problems, a few suggestions, avoid plagiarism.

• Presenting the Research Paper

Find a topic.

• Try to find a subject that really interests you.
• While you explore the topic, narrow or broaden your target and focus on something that gives the most promising results.
• Don't choose a huge subject if you have to write a 3 page long paper, and broaden your topic sufficiently if you have to submit at least 25 pages.
• Consult your class instructor (and your classmates) about the topic.

Explore the topic.

• Find primary and secondary sources in the library.
• Read and critically analyse them.
• Take notes.
• Compile surveys, collect data, gather materials for quantitative analysis (if these are good methods to investigate the topic more deeply).
• Come up with new ideas about the topic. Try to formulate your ideas in a few sentences.
• Review your notes and other materials and enrich the outline.
• Try to estimate how long the individual parts will be.
• Do others understand what you want to say?
• Do they accept it as new knowledge or relevant and important for a paper?
• Do they agree that your thoughts will result in a successful paper?
• Qualitative: gives answers on questions (how, why, when, who, what, etc.) by investigating an issue
• Quantitative:requires data and the analysis of data as well
• the essence, the point of the research paper in one or two sentences.
• a statement that can be proved or disproved.
• Be specific.
• Avoid ambiguity.
• Use predominantly the active voice, not the passive.
• Deal with one issue in one paragraph.
• Be accurate.
• Double-check your data, references, citations and statements.

Academic Expression

• Don't use familiar style or colloquial/slang expressions.
• Write in full sentences.
• Check the meaning of the words if you don't know exactly what they mean.
• Avoid metaphors.
• Almost the rough content of every paragraph.
• The order of the various topics in your paper.
• On the basis of the outline, start writing a part by planning the content, and then write it down.
• Put a visible mark (which you will later delete) where you need to quote a source, and write in the citation when you finish writing that part or a bigger part.
• Does the text make sense?
• Could you explain what you wanted?
• Did you write good sentences?
• Is there something missing?
• Check the spelling.
• Complete the citations, bring them in standard format.

Use the guidelines that your instructor requires (MLA, Chicago, APA, Turabian, etc.).

• Adjust margins, spacing, paragraph indentation, place of page numbers, etc.
• Standardize the bibliography or footnotes according to the guidelines.

• EndNote and EndNote Basic by UCLA Library Last Updated Jul 3, 2024 1789 views this year
• Zotero by UCLA Library Last Updated Jul 22, 2024 1173 views this year

(Based on English Composition 2 from Illinois Valley Community College):

• Weak organization
• Poor support and development of ideas
• Weak use of secondary sources
• Excessive errors
• Stylistic weakness

When collecting materials, selecting research topic, and writing the paper:

• Be systematic and organized (e.g. keep your bibliography neat and organized; write your notes in a neat way, so that you can find them later on.
• Use your critical thinking ability when you read.
• Write down your thoughts (so that you can reconstruct them later).
• Stop when you have a really good idea and think about whether you could enlarge it to a whole research paper. If yes, take much longer notes.
• When you write down a quotation or summarize somebody else's thoughts in your notes or in the paper, cite the source (i.e. write down the author, title, publication place, year, page number).
• If you quote or summarize a thought from the internet, cite the internet source.
• Write an outline that is detailed enough to remind you about the content.
• Read your paper for yourself or, preferably, somebody else. 
• When you finish writing, check the spelling;
• Use the citation form (MLA, Chicago, or other) that your instructor requires and use it everywhere.

Plagiarism : somebody else's words or ideas presented without citation by an author

• Cite your source every time when you quote a part of somebody's work.
• Cite your source  every time when you summarize a thought from somebody's work.
• Cite your source  every time when you use a source (quote or summarize) from the Internet.

Consult the Citing Sources research guide for further details.

• << Previous: Writing a Research Proposal
• Next: Presenting the Research Paper >>
• Last Updated: Jul 24, 2024 1:23 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.ucla.edu/research-methods

• Writing Worksheets and Other Writing Resources
• The Writing Process

A Process Approach to Writing Research Papers

About the slc.

• Our Mission and Core Values

(adapted from Research Paper Guide, Point Loma Nazarene University, 2010) 

Step 1: Be a Strategic Reader and Scholar 

Even before your paper is assigned, use the tools you have been given by your instructor and GSI, and create tools you can use later. 

See the handout “Be a Strategic Reader and Scholar” for more information.

Step 2: Understand the Assignment 

• Free topic choice or assigned?
• Type of paper: Informative? Persuasive? Other?
• Any terminology in assignment not clear?
• Library research needed or required? How much?
• What style of citation is required?
• Can you break the assignment into parts?
• When will you do each part?
• Are you required or allowed to collaborate with other members of the class?
• Other special directions or requirements?

Step 3: Select a Topic 

• interests you
• you know something about
• you can research easily
• Write out topic and brainstorm.
• Select your paper’s specific topic from this brainstorming list.
• In a sentence or short paragraph, describe what you think your paper is about.

Step 4: Initial Planning, Investigation, and Outlining 

• the nature of your audience
• ideas & information you already possess
• sources you can consult
• background reading you should do

Make a rough outline, a guide for your research to keep you on the subject while you work. 

Step 5: Accumulate Research Materials 

• Use cards, Word, Post-its, or Excel to organize.
• Organize your bibliography records first.
• Organize notes next (one idea per document— direct quotations, paraphrases, your own ideas).
• Arrange your notes under the main headings of your tentative outline. If necessary, print out documents and literally cut and paste (scissors and tape) them together by heading.

Step 6: Make a Final Outline to Guide Writing 

• Reorganize and fill in tentative outline.
• Organize notes to correspond to outline. 
• As you decide where you will use outside resources in your paper, make notes in your outline to refer to your numbered notecards, attach post-its to your printed outline, or note the use of outside resources in a different font or text color from the rest of your outline. 
• In both Steps 6 and 7, it is important to maintain a clear distinction between your own words and ideas and those of others.

Step 7: Write the Paper 

• Use your outline to guide you.
• Write quickly—capture flow of ideas—deal with proofreading later.
• Put aside overnight or longer, if possible.

Step 8: Revise and Proofread 

• Check organization—reorganize paragraphs and add transitions where necessary.
• Make sure all researched information is documented.
• Rework introduction and conclusion.
• Work on sentences—check spelling, punctuation, word choice, etc.
• Read out loud to check for flow.

Carolyn Swalina, Writing Program Coordinator  Student Learning Center, University of California, Berkeley ©2011 UC Regents

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

• PDFs for all 136 Lit Terms we cover
• Downloads of 1974 LitCharts Lit Guides
• Teacher Editions for every Lit Guide
• Explanations and citation info for 41,643 quotes across 1974 books
• Downloadable (PDF) line-by-line translations of every Shakespeare play

Need something? Request a new guide .

How can we improve? Share feedback .

LitCharts is hiring!

• Skip to main content
• assistive.skiplink.to.breadcrumbs
• assistive.skiplink.to.header.menu
• assistive.skiplink.to.action.menu
• assistive.skiplink.to.quick.search

• A t tachments (1)
• Page History
• Page Information
• Resolved comments
• View in Hierarchy
• View Source
• Export to PDF
• Export to Word

Module 3: Mechanics of academic writing

• Created by Maura Ferrarini Meagher , last modified by Kristen Mary-Martha Koob on Oct 24, 2017

Learning Objectives

Students will be able to:

• define common knowledge
• articulate the difference between paraphrasing and direct quoting
• distinguish among summarizing, paraphrasing, and synthesizing
• locate original work on a secondary citation
• identify how citing sources is a responsibility of all scholars (it's not just about not cheating, but about finding your voice as a scholar)
• know where to find the appropriate citation style for your discipline/school

Other possible LO (or maybe goes into Module 4 ?)

• cite original work following the mechanics of the citation style required for their discipline/a specific journal

Graduate students

Content Brainstorm

• Best practices
• Link to resources (i.e. school specific writing centers)
• "If it's not common knowledge you don't need to cite it"
• Publicly available information still needs verification of the claims making (i.e when citing statistics)
• Making judgement calls - it's what's expected of you as developing your voice as a scholar
• Facts, information, knowledge, and  expression  (intellectual work that deserves to be recognized; respecting authorship)
• Learning to synthesize and analyze information shows you can talk about a topic/subject because YOU understand it
• The danger of secondary citations - you need to read  the core idea
• You're demonstrating your voice and understanding

DEFINE and GIVE AN EXAMPLE of common knowledge.

Definition from Harvard Guide to Using Sources: " Common knowledge is information generally known to an educated reader, such as widely known facts and dates, and, more rarely, ideas or language. Facts, ideas, and language that are distinct and unique products of a particular individual's work do not count as common knowledge and must always be cited."  https://usingsources.fas.harvard.edu/exception-common-knowledge  

General facts and basic information, i.e. The United States has three branches of government. Definitions of general terms (though grad students should never ever write sentences like  "The dictionary defines X as...". Claims that do not require external substantiation, for example:

"Information seeking is a primary activity of everyday life." (from Library Science article)

"With the exponential growth in information and communication technology, online tutorial support has become an increasingly popular method for student learning in open and distance education." (from ed tech article) 

"When referring to the term ‘classroom’, many instructors naturally tend to only think about the traditional physical classroom." (from computer-assisted learning article)

In graduate level writing, or at least in APA type research articles, the uncited "common knowledge" is usually the introductory information. 

Definition from Yale Writing Center :" If you are familiar with the notion of “common knowledge” from earlier writing experiences, you may have noticed that its definition is easy to state, but can be hard to apply in a particular case. The “common” way to talk about common knowledge is to say that it is knowledge that most educated people know or can find out easily in an encyclopedia or dictionary. Thus, you might not know the date of the most recent meeting of the Federal Reserve, but you can find it out quite easily. Further, the term “common knowledge” carries the sense of “communal” knowledge—it is community information that no particular individual can fairly claim to own. One sign that something is community knowledge is that it is stated in 5 or more sources. So, if it’s known to educated people, or can be easily looked up, or appears in many sources, it is likely to be “common knowledge” and so does not need to be cited.

HOW to cite common knowledge.

(In this case, it's not citing, but explaining why it does not need to be cited.)

  Common Knowledge

The Harvard Guide to Writing with Sources describes categories of common knowledge, which you do not have to cite. The information below is from that website.

Widely Known Facts

The first category is widely known facts , such as Andrew Jackson was the seventh president of the United States.

However, be sure to cite the sources of assertions that are the product of an individual’s thought, research, or analysis. For example, you read Sean Wilentz's book on Andrew Jackson and wrote a paper in which you repeated Wilentz's claim that Andrew Jackson believed his Indian removal policy would protect Indians rather than harm them. In this case, you would need to cite Wilentz as the source of this idea.

Information that No Particular Individual Discovered

The second category, while perhaps not widely known is Information that No Particular Individual Discovered , for instance Franz Boas, the distinguished American ethnologist, held the first academic appointment in anthropology in the United States .

Very well-known phrases

Thirdly, very well-known phrases can be considered common knowledge. For instance, if you wrote a paper that compares one of President Obama's inaugural address lines to this very well-known phrase from John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address, "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country," you would not need to provide a citation for that phrase.

However, if you used multiple quotations from JFK’s speech, you would need to cite them so that the reader could confirm the original language.

If you are unsure whether or not a fact or quote is common knowledge, ask a writing consultant or be on the safe side and/or cite it!

DEFINE and GIVE AN EXAMPLE of paraphrasing.

Is there a definition of paraphrasing from the existing HGSE tutorial that we can re-use?

The tutorial only has a definition on paraphrase from the Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: a restatement of a text, passage, or work giving the meaning in another form. 

Examples from the HGSE paraphrasing tutorial handout . 

Also, not sure how to word this, but I think one place where students get in trouble is finding one or two sentences from a work that they want to paraphrase. The shorter the original quote, the harder it is to rephrase in your own words.

Definition from Purdue OWL: "Your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented in a new form."  https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/619/01/

Another definition from Purdue OWL: "Paraphrasing involves  putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly." https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/  

HOW to paraphrase.

Additional resources that explain paraphrasing., define and give an example of direct quoting..

Definition from Purdue OWL: "Quotations m ust be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author."  https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/

HOW to use direct quotes.

Additional resources that explain direct quoting., define and give an example of summarizing..

See drawing on Kris' whiteboard.

Definition from Purdue OWL:  "Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material."  https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/

Examples on summarizing, quoting, and paraphrasing from Purdue Owl .

HOW to summarize.

Additional resources that explain summarizing., define and give an example of synthesizing., how to synthesize., additional resources that explain synthesizing., define and give an example of secondary citations. (hold off on this), what are the similarities between paraphrasing and direct quoting, what are the differences between paraphrasing and direct quoting .

From Harvard Guide to Using Sources: 

When you use any part of a source in your paper—as background information, as evidence, as counterargument to which you plan to respond, or in any other form—you will always need to decide whether to quote directly from the source or to paraphrase it. Unless you have a good reason to  quote directly from the source , you should paraphrase the source. Any time you paraphrase an author's words and ideas in your paper, you should make it clear to your reader why you are presenting this particular material from a source at this point in your paper. You should also make sure you have represented the author accurately, that you have used your own words consistently, and that you have cited the source.

So, for example, it may be important for a reader to see a passage of text quoted directly from Tim O'Brien's  The Things They Carried  if you plan to analyze the language of that passage in order to support your thesis about the book. On the other hand, if you're writing a paper in which you're making a claim about the reading habits of American elementary school students or reviewing the current research on Wilson's disease, you should paraphrase text from your sources. In these cases, the information you're providing is more important than the exact words used to make this claim. 

https://usingsources.fas.harvard.edu/summarizing-paraphrasing-and-quoting

What are the SIMILARITIES among summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing?

What are the differences among summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing .

Purdue Owl lists the differences among quotations, paraphrasing and summarizing. It makes more sense to group these together as they serve the same purpose. 

"These three ways of incorporating other writers' work into your own writing differ according to the closeness of your writing to the source writing.

Quotations  must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.

Paraphrasing  involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.

Summarizing  involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material."

Why should students not use secondary citations?

What are strategies students can use to locate the original work from a secondary citation.

Search the citation in Hollis ->Journals 

Why should students care about demonstrating academic integrity? (Why do we cite sources?)

From Purdue OWL

Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries serve many purposes. You might use them to:

• Provide support for claims or add credibility to your writing
• Refer to work that leads up to the work you are now doing
• Give examples of several points of view on a subject
• Call attention to a position that you wish to agree or disagree with
• Highlight a particularly striking phrase, sentence, or passage by quoting the original
• Distance yourself from the original by quoting it in order to cue readers that the words are not your own
• Expand the breadth or depth of your writing

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/01/

Terms to Define

• Common knowledge
• Paraphrasing
• Direct quoting
• Secondary citations
• Had meeting to solidify learning objectives and more discussion around the type of content we want to have in the tutorial.
• Ning had more content to include that she's been working on for GSE

Jonathan Paulo

I have a couple questions:

• Maybe this is something you discussed earlier, but what is our distinction between synthesizing and summarizing? Are we thinking of summarizing as the summary of a single source, and synthesizing as the synthesis of multiple sources? I notice that most tutorials on this subject focus on quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing, especially in terms of integrating and working with a single source. I just wanted to make sure we have a clear distinction so it doesn't come across as too similar, or too different, where synthesizing has less to do with integrating a source, and more to do with the overall research process.  
• As I see a number of different libraries providing definitions, tutorials, examples of quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing, I do wonder if we are reinventing the wheel a little. I know we talked about this at our meeting and decided that our tutorial is more focused on graduate students and includes more unique content, especially Module 1 and Module 2, but perhaps this Module 3 could tie-into existing content, especially the Harvard Guide to Using Sources, which seems widely used at Harvard, which covers quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing , and common knowledge , and maybe we could synthesize their examples into a concise and quick guide? The OWL also has content on this , as well as further help with paraphrasing , which I notice many libraries referring to. Not that we can't be original and create new content, I just want to make sure we should in this case.
• Apr 20, 2017

Kris M Markman

Hi Jonathan,

• Yes, I see summarizing as a single work, and synthesizing as bringing together multiple summaries. So for a grad student, their literature review should really be more about synthesizing than just giving a list of summaries, but you have to know how to summarize before you can synthesize. So perhaps this is one place where we can make the tutorial stand out, is to really emphasize the higher-order skill of synthesizing and critically analyzing sources and integrating them into your own work?

2. I agree completely and I guess I'm not sure what to do about this–I'd love to hear others' thoughts. Clearly people at Harvard have expressed that there is a need for a tutorial like this, and yet there are so many out there. Maybe we do just think of artful ways to quote or point to existing content that we think is already exemplary?

So I guess my question is "Why, with so many existing tutorials and help sites out there, do students still struggle with this topic?"

• Apr 21, 2017

Thank you for your response.

On the first point, thank you for clarifying our intentions for summarizing and synthesizing. I agree, I think emphasizing the higher-order skill of synthesizing could make this tutorial stand out, since other tutorials don't go beyond summarizing a single source. And since students sometimes look for single articles to cover every aspect of their topic, focusing on synthesizing will be a good way to illustrate the concept of arguing your topic through multiple sources, each with a potentially different perspective, that students synthesize to create their original voice.

On the second point, if we like some of the Harvard Guide to Using Sources content, and/or the OWL content, I think quoting or pointing to that content is a good idea, especially in terms of reinforcing and connecting to those guides for further help. I think an artful way of doing so is to make it as concise as possible, and more illustrative. I think one of the reasons students still struggle with this topic, despite all the tutorials out there, is that many are very text heavy and too lengthy, and I wonder how closely students are actually reading, comprehending, and transferring those lessons. I also think it's a skill you have to do in order to be better at it. Seeing an example is helpful, but until you give it a try you may not really get it. Maybe we somehow encourage practice? 

• Apr 24, 2017
• Copyright © 2023 The President and Fellows of Harvard College
• Accessibility
• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use
• Atlassian Confluence 7.19.22

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• PLoS Comput Biol
• v.10(1); 2014 Jan

Ten Simple Rules for Writing Research Papers

Weixiong zhang.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Department of Genetics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America

The importance of writing well can never be overstated for a successful professional career, and the ability to write solid papers is an essential trait of a productive researcher. Writing and publishing a paper has its own life cycle; properly following a course of action and avoiding missteps can be vital to the overall success not only of a paper but of the underlying research as well. Here, we offer ten simple rules for writing and publishing research papers.

As a caveat, this essay is not about the mechanics of composing a paper, much of which has been covered elsewhere, e.g., [1] , [2] . Rather, it is about the principles and attitude that can help guide the process of writing in particular and research in general. In this regard, some of the discussion will complement, extend, and refine some advice given in early articles of this Ten Simple Rules series of PLOS Computational Biology [3] – [8] .

Rule 1: Make It a Driving Force

Never separate writing a paper from the underlying research. After all, writing and research are integral parts of the overall enterprise. Therefore, design a project with an ultimate paper firmly in mind. Include an outline of the paper in the initial project design documents to help form the research objectives, determine the logical flow of the experiments, and organize the materials and data to be used. Furthermore, use writing as a tool to reassess the overall project, reevaluate the logic of the experiments, and examine the validity of the results during the research. As a result, the overall research may need to be adjusted, the project design may be revised, new methods may be devised, and new data may be collected. The process of research and writing may be repeated if necessary.

Rule 2: Less Is More

It is often the case that more than one hypothesis or objective may be tackled in one project. It is also not uncommon that the data and results gathered for one objective can serve additional purposes. A decision on having one or more papers needs to be made, and the decision will be affected by various factors. Regardless of the validity of these factors, the overriding consideration must be the potential impact that the paper may have on the research subject and field. Therefore, the significance, completeness, and coherence of the results presented as a whole should be the principal guide for selecting the story to tell, the hypothesis to focus upon, and materials to include in the paper, as well as the yardstick for measuring the quality of the paper. By this metric, less is more , i.e., fewer but more significant papers serve both the research community and one's career better than more papers of less significance.

Rule 3: Pick the Right Audience

Deciding on an angle of the story to focus upon is the next hurdle to jump at the initial stage of the writing. The results from a computational study of a biological problem can often be presented to biologists, computational scientists, or both; deciding what story to tell and from what angle to pitch the main idea is important. This issue translates to choosing a target audience, as well as an appropriate journal, to cast the main messages to. This is critical for determining the organization of the paper and the level of detail of the story, so as to write the paper with the audience in mind. Indeed, writing a paper for biologists in general is different from writing for specialists in computational biology.

Rule 4: Be Logical

The foundation of “lively” writing for smooth reading is a sound and clear logic underlying the story of the paper. Although experiments may be carried out independently, the result from one experiment may form premises and/or provide supporting data for the next experiment. The experiments and results, therefore, must be presented in a logical order. In order to make the writing an easy process to follow, this logical flow should be determined before any other writing strategy or tactic is exercised. This logical order can also help you avoid discussing the same issue or presenting the same argument in multiple places in the paper, which may dilute the readers' attention.

An effective tactic to help develop a sound logical flow is to imaginatively create a set of figures and tables, which will ultimately be developed from experimental results, and order them in a logical way based on the information flow through the experiments. In other words, the figures and tables alone can tell the story without consulting additional material. If all or some of these figures and tables are included in the final manuscript, make every effort to make them self-contained (see Rule 5 below), a favorable feature for the paper to have. In addition, these figures and tables, as well as the threading logical flow, may be used to direct or organize research activities, reinforcing Rule 1.

Rule 5: Be Thorough and Make It Complete

Completeness is a cornerstone for a research paper, following Rule 2. This cornerstone needs to be set in both content and presentation. First, important and relevant aspects of a hypothesis pursued in the research should be discussed with detailed supporting data. If the page limit is an issue, focus on one or two main aspects with sufficient details in the main text and leave the rest to online supporting materials. As a reminder, be sure to keep the details of all experiments (e.g., parameters of the experiments and versions of software) for revision, post-publication correspondence, or importantly, reproducibility of the results. Second, don't simply state what results are presented in figures and tables, which makes the writing repetitive because they are self-contained (see below), but rather, interpret them with insights to the underlying story to be told (typically in the results section) and discuss their implication (typically in the discussion section).

Third, make the whole paper self-contained. Introduce an adequate amount of background and introductory material for the right audience (following Rule 3). A statistical test, e.g., hypergeometric tests for enrichment of a subset of objects, may be obvious to statisticians or computational biologists but may be foreign to others, so providing a sufficient amount of background is the key for delivery of the material. When an uncommon term is used, give a definition besides a reference to it. Fourth, try to avoid “making your readers do the arithmetic” [9] , i.e., be clear enough so that the readers don't have to make any inference from the presented data. If such results need to be discussed, make them explicit even though they may be readily derived from other data. Fifth, figures and tables are essential components of a paper, each of which must be included for a good reason; make each of them self-contained with all required information clearly specified in the legend to guide interpretation of the data presented.

Rule 6: Be Concise

This is a caveat to Rule 5 and is singled out to emphasize its importance. Being thorough is not a license to writing that is unnecessarily descriptive, repetitive, or lengthy. Rather, on the contrary, “simplicity is the ultimate sophistication” [10] . Overly elaborate writing is distracting and boring and places a burden on the readers. In contrast, the delivery of a message is more rigorous if the writing is precise and concise. One excellent example is Watson and Crick's Nobel-Prize-winning paper on the DNA double helix structure [11] —it is only two pages long!

Rule 7: Be Artistic

A complete draft of a paper requires a lot of work, so it pays to go the extra mile to polish it to facilitate enjoyable reading. A paper presented as a piece of art will give referees a positive initial impression of your passion toward the research and the quality of the work, which will work in your favor in the reviewing process. Therefore, concentrate on spelling, grammar, usage, and a “lively” writing style that avoids successions of simple, boring, declarative sentences. Have an authoritative dictionary with a thesaurus and a style manual, e.g., [1] , handy and use them relentlessly. Also pay attention to small details in presentation, such as paragraph indentation, page margins, and fonts. If you are not a native speaker of the language the paper is written in, make sure to have a native speaker go over the final draft to ensure correctness and accuracy of the language used.

Rule 8: Be Your Own Judge

A complete manuscript typically requires many rounds of revision. Taking a correct attitude during revision is critical to the resolution of most problems in the writing. Be objective and honest about your work and do not exaggerate or belittle the significance of the results and the elegance of the methods developed. After working long and hard, you are an expert on the problem you studied, and you are the best referee of your own work, after all . Therefore, inspect the research and the paper in the context of the state of the art.

When revising a draft, purge yourself out of the picture and leave your passion for your work aside. To be concrete, put yourself completely in the shoes of a referee and scrutinize all the pieces—the significance of the work, the logic of the story, the correctness of the results and conclusions, the organization of the paper, and the presentation of the materials. In practice, you may put a draft aside for a day or two—try to forget about it completely—and then come back to it fresh, consider it as if it were someone else's writing, and read it through while trying to poke holes in the story and writing. In this process, extract the meaning literally from the language as written and do not try to use your own view to interpret or extrapolate from what was written. Don't be afraid to throw away pieces of your writing and start over from scratch if they do not pass this “not-yourself” test. This can be painful, but the final manuscript will be more logically sound and better organized.

Rule 9: Test the Water in Your Own Backyard

It is wise to anticipate the possible questions and critiques the referees may raise and preemptively address their concerns before submission. To do so, collect feedback and critiques from others, e.g., colleagues and collaborators. Discuss your work with them and get their opinions, suggestions, and comments. A talk at a lab meeting or a departmental seminar will also help rectify potential issues that need to be addressed. If you are a graduate student, running the paper and results through the thesis committee may be effective to iron out possible problems.

Rule 10: Build a Virtual Team of Collaborators

When a submission is rejected or poorly reviewed, don't be offended and don't take it personally. Be aware that the referees spent their time on the paper, which they might have otherwise devoted to their own research, so they are doing you a favor and helping you shape the paper to be more accessible to the targeted audience. Therefore, consider the referees as your collaborators and treat the reviews with respect. This attitude can improve the quality of your paper and research.

Read and examine the reviews objectively—the principles set in Rule 8 apply here as well. Often a criticism was raised because one of the aspects of a hypothesis was not adequately studied, or an important result from previous research was not mentioned or not consistent with yours. If a critique is about the robustness of a method used or the validity of a result, often the research needs to be redone or more data need to be collected. If you believe the referee has misunderstood a particular point, check the writing. It is often the case that improper wording or presentation misled the referee. If that's the case, revise the writing thoroughly. Don't argue without supporting data. Don't submit the paper elsewhere without additional work. This can only temporally mitigate the issue, you will not be happy with the paper in the long run, and this may hurt your reputation.

Finally, keep in mind that writing is personal, and it takes a lot of practice to find one's style. What works and what does not work vary from person to person. Undoubtedly, dedicated practice will help produce stronger papers with long-lasting impact.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Sharlee Climer, Richard Korf, and Kevin Zhang for critical reading of the manuscript.

Funding Statement

The author received no specific funding for this article.

Effective Writing Mechanics: Essential Guide & Tips

1. get to know the basics, grammar rules, punctuation guide, proper capitalization, 2. build your vocabulary, explore thesaurus, learn new words, use vocabulary apps, 3. write regularly, set writing goals, join writing groups, use writing prompts, 4. edit your work, proofread for errors, use editing tools, hire a proofreader, 5. learn from others, read quality writing, take writing courses, follow expert bloggers, 6. experiment with styles and tones, try different writing styles, adapt various writing tones, write in different genres, 7. engage your readers, use interactive content, respond to comments, create engaging titles, 8. stay motivated, set personal goals, celebrate small wins, keep a writing journal, 9. practice mindfulness, meditate for focus, practise mindful writing, stay present while writing, 10. reflect and improve, get feedback, analyse your progress, plan for improvement.

Have you ever pondered about the question: "what is mechanics in writing"? If so, you're in the right place. Writing mechanics are the nuts and bolts of language that make a piece of writing clear, fluid, and enjoyable to read. It's the underlying structure that holds your words together and gives them meaning. This blog aims to help you navigate the realm of writing mechanics with practical advice and actionable tips, making the complex simple and the daunting achievable. Let's start with the basics.

Learning the fundamentals of writing mechanics is like building a strong foundation for a house—it ensures everything else you build will stand strong. With a firm grasp of grammar rules, proper punctuation, and correct capitalization, you'll be able to express your thoughts accurately and impressively. Let's dig a bit deeper.

Grammar is the rulebook of writing—it's what helps us make sense of language. Here are a few key things to remember:

• Understand the eight parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
• Ensure your subjects and verbs agree. If your subject is singular, your verb should also be singular.
• Use correct verb tenses to express time accurately.

Remember: even the most interesting ideas can lose their appeal if they're tangled in grammatical errors. So, give grammar the attention it deserves.

Punctuation is like the traffic signals of writing—it guides the reader through your words, indicating when to pause, stop, or expect more. Here's a quick guide:

• A period (.) signals the end of a sentence.
• A comma (,) indicates a pause or separates items in a list.
• Colons (:) and semicolons (;) can be used to connect related sentences or divide complex lists.

Tip: Punctuation misuse can lead to confusion or misunderstandings, so it's worth taking the time to learn the rules.

Capitalization helps distinguish specific words, like proper nouns, from the rest of the text. Here are some capitalization rules:

• Capitalize the first word of a sentence.
• Capitalize proper nouns, which include names of people, places, organizations, and sometimes things.
• Do not capitalize common nouns unless they're at the beginning of a sentence.

Note: Incorrect capitalization can be a distraction to readers, so keep these rules in mind as you write.

Getting the basics right is the first step to understanding what mechanics in writing is all about. Once you've nailed these, you're ready to tackle more advanced aspects of writing mechanics.

Expanding your vocabulary is like adding more colors to your palette—it allows you to paint more vivid, precise pictures with your words. Let's look at some effective ways to build your vocabulary.

A thesaurus is a treasure trove of words. It's an invaluable tool to help you find synonyms (words that mean the same thing) and antonyms (words that mean the opposite). Here's how to make the most of a thesaurus:

• When you come across a word you're overusing, look it up in the thesaurus. You'll find a list of alternatives to add variety to your writing.
• Use a thesaurus to learn new words, but make sure to also learn their definitions to use them correctly.

Tip: While a thesaurus can enhance your writing, remember that simplicity often trumps complexity. Don't use complicated words when a simpler one will do.

Just like a chef needs to know a variety of ingredients to create different dishes, a writer needs a vast vocabulary to express diverse ideas. Here's how:

• Read widely and diversely: Books, newspapers, magazines, and even websites can be rich sources of new words.
• Use a word of the day calendar or app to learn a new word every day.
• When you encounter a word you don't know, look it up. Try to use it in a sentence to help remember it.

Remember: Language is continuously evolving, and so should your vocabulary. Challenge yourself to learn new words regularly.

In today's digital age, learning new words is as easy as tapping on your smartphone. Vocabulary apps like Magoosh, Vocabulary.com, and Anki can make learning new words fun and convenient. Here are some benefits:

• Most vocabulary apps feature a word of the day, flashcards, quizzes, and progress tracking.
• They allow you to learn at your own pace, whether you have a few minutes or an hour to spare.
• They make learning interactive, which can help improve retention.

Note: While apps can be helpful, they should supplement—not replace—reading as a means of building your vocabulary.

Building a robust vocabulary not only helps you express your ideas more precisely but also understand others better. It's an integral part of what mechanics in writing is all about.

Writing, like any skill, improves with practice. The more you write, the more you'll hone your mechanics in writing. Let's dive into some practical ways to write regularly.

Setting goals can give your writing practice direction and purpose. Here's how to set effective writing goals:

• Start with small, achievable goals like writing 200 words a day. Once you're comfortable with that, gradually increase your word count.
• Be specific about what you want to achieve. Instead of "I want to write more," say "I want to write a 500-word blog post every week."
• Hold yourself accountable. Track your progress, and celebrate your achievements—no matter how small.

Remember: The goal is not just to write more, but also to write better. Always strive to improve your writing mechanics.

Writing may be a solitary activity, but that doesn't mean you have to do it alone. Joining a writing group can provide support, feedback, and motivation. Here are some benefits:

• Writing groups can provide constructive feedback to help you improve your writing.
• They can offer encouragement, especially when you're feeling stuck or uninspired.
• You can learn from other writers' experiences and techniques.

Note: You can find writing groups in your local community or online. Choose one that aligns with your writing goals and interests.

Writing prompts can kickstart your creativity when you're feeling stuck or uninspired. They can be a word, a phrase, a situation, or even a picture. Here's how to use them:

• Choose a prompt that interests you. Don't feel limited by the prompt—let your imagination run wild.
• Set a timer for 10-15 minutes and write without stopping or editing. This can help you get into the flow of writing.
• Use prompts to explore different genres, styles, and tones. It can help improve your versatility as a writer.

Tip: You can find writing prompts in books, websites, or even writing apps. Use them as a tool to practice and experiment with your writing.

Writing regularly is like exercise for your brain—it strengthens your writing muscles and improves your writing mechanics. So, grab your pen or keyboard and start writing!

Editing is a crucial part of writing mechanics. It's the stage where you refine your work, clarify your ideas, and eliminate errors. Let's delve into some ways you can effectively edit your work.

Proofreading is the process of checking for and correcting mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and formatting. Here are some tips:

• Take a break before proofreading. Coming back to your work with fresh eyes can make it easier to spot errors.
• Read your work aloud. This can help you catch awkward sentences and misplaced punctuation.
• Use a spell-checker, but don't rely on it completely. It can miss homophones and context-specific errors.

Remember: Proofreading is not just about finding errors—it's also about making sure your writing is clear, coherent, and engaging.

Editing tools can help you catch errors and improve your writing. They can check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, as well as readability and style issues. Here's how to use them:

• Choose a tool that suits your needs. Some popular options include Grammarly, Hemingway Editor, and ProWritingAid.
• Use them as a guide, not a rulebook. They can offer suggestions, but you're the one who knows your voice and message best.
• Don't forget to proofread even after using an editing tool. No tool can catch every error.

Note: While editing tools can be useful, they're not a substitute for understanding writing mechanics and editing skills. Use them as a complement, not a crutch.

If you're working on a big project or you want a professional touch, consider hiring a proofreader. A proofreader can provide a fresh perspective and catch errors you might have missed. Here's what to consider:

• Look for a proofreader who specializes in your type of writing. A proofreader experienced in academic writing might not be the best fit for a novel, for example.
• Be clear about your expectations. What do you want the proofreader to focus on—grammar, formatting, style, or all of the above?
• Remember to budget for this. While it can be a worthwhile investment, professional proofreading services do come with a cost.

Tip: You can find professional proofreaders on platforms like Upwork, Fiverr, or even LinkedIn.

Editing is like polishing a rough diamond—it can transform your writing from good to great. So, embrace the editing process and see your writing shine!

Learning from others is a crucial aspect of understanding what mechanics in writing is all about. It's about observing, understanding, and implementing the styles, techniques, and strategies of successful writers. Let's explore how you can learn from others to improve your writing mechanics.

Reading quality writing is a powerful way to learn. It exposes you to different styles, tones, and effective uses of language. Here are some strategies you can adopt:

• Read a variety of genres. From novels by Stephen King to research papers by Albert Einstein, different genres offer different lessons.
• Analyze what you read. Look at how the writer structures sentences, builds paragraphs, and uses punctuation. This is an excellent way to learn practical writing mechanics.
• Take notes. If a piece of writing impresses you, jot down why. Did they use a clever metaphor? Was their argument well-structured?

Remember: Reading is not just about consuming content—it's also about understanding how effective writing is crafted.

Writing courses are a structured way to learn writing mechanics. They can offer guided lessons, practical exercises, and expert feedback. Here's how to go about it:

• Choose a course that suits your needs. There are courses on everything from basic grammar to advanced narrative techniques.
• Engage fully with the course. Complete the exercises, ask questions, and take advantage of any feedback offered.
• Don't forget to apply what you learn. Practice is key to improving your writing mechanics.

Note: You can find a wealth of writing courses online, on platforms like Coursera, Udemy, and even YouTube.

Following expert bloggers can offer insights into successful writing. You can learn from their style, their engagement strategies, and their content. Here are some tips:

• Choose bloggers who write about topics you're interested in. This will make your learning process more enjoyable.
• Take note of how they engage their readers. Do they use humor? Do they ask questions? Do they use storytelling?
• Try implementing some of their strategies in your own writing. Remember—it's not about copying, but about learning and adapting.

Tip: Some popular bloggers who are known for their excellent writing include Seth Godin (marketing), Maria Popova (culture), and Tim Urban (science and philosophy).

Learning from others is like standing on the shoulders of giants—it gives you a higher vantage point from which to improve your writing mechanics. Embrace the journey, and see your writing skills soar!

One of the best ways to understand what mechanics in writing truly means, is to experiment with different styles and tones. By varying your style and tone, you can discover your unique writing voice and learn how to adapt it to different contexts. Here's how to go about it.

Writing styles are like the clothes that language wears - they can completely change the perception of your words. Exploring different styles can teach you a lot about writing mechanics. Here are some steps to take:

• Explore styles across genres. Write a short story one day, a business report the next, and maybe a poem after that.
• Imitate the styles of writers you admire. This can help you understand the mechanics behind their writing.
• Experiment until you find a style that feels authentically yours. Your unique style is your trademark as a writer.

Remember: Trying different styles isn't about being inconsistent, but about understanding the vast possibilities of language.

Tone is the mood or attitude conveyed by your writing. Adapting your tone to suit different contexts is a key part of mastering writing mechanics. Here's how to get started:

• Write the same content in different tones. Try writing a cheerful blog post, a serious academic essay, and a satirical commentary.
• Take note of the words, sentence structures, and punctuation that set the tone in different pieces of writing.
• Practice adjusting your tone based on your audience and purpose. A speech for a wedding will have a different tone than a speech for a business conference.

Note: The right tone can make your writing engaging, persuasive, and memorable. So, don't be afraid to play around with it!

Writing in different genres can help you explore new perspectives and challenge your writing mechanics. Here's how to do it:

• Choose a genre you're unfamiliar with. This could be anything from science fiction to journalistic writing.
• Research the conventions and expectations of the genre. What makes a crime novel different from a romance novel?
• Write a short piece in your chosen genre. Remember, it's not about producing a masterpiece, but about learning and growing as a writer.

Tip: Writing in different genres can also help you discover new interests and expand your writing horizons.

Exploring different styles, tones, and genres is like a fun adventure in the world of writing. So, get ready to experiment and learn, and watch your understanding of writing mechanics deepen and evolve!

Writing is a two-way street. As you explore what mechanics in writing is, remember that a significant part of good writing involves engaging your readers. Here are a few strategies to help you connect with your audience better.

Interactive content is a great way to engage your readers and make your writing more memorable. Here's how you can incorporate it into your work:

• Use quizzes, polls, or surveys to encourage reader participation.
• Include infographics or interactive diagrams to explain complex concepts.
• Add a comments section where readers can share their thoughts.

Remember: Interactive content not only makes your writing more engaging but also helps you understand your readers better.

Responding to your readers' comments is an excellent way to build a community around your writing. Here's how to do it effectively:

• Thank your readers for their comments, even if they're critical. This shows that you value their input.
• Answer questions and provide additional information where necessary.
• Use readers' feedback to improve your writing. Their perspectives can help you understand the mechanics of writing from different angles.

Note: Responding to comments can take time, but it's worth it for the connection you'll build with your readers.

Engaging titles can draw readers in and make them eager to read your content. Here's how to craft compelling titles:

• Keep your titles short and clear. Avoid jargon and complex phrases.
• Make your titles intriguing but not misleading. The content should deliver what the title promises.
• Use powerful words that evoke emotion or curiosity.

Tip: A great title can make the difference between your content being read or ignored, so spend time perfecting it!

Engaging your readers is an art in itself, and mastering it can take your writing to new heights. So, as you explore the mechanics of writing, don't forget to keep your readers at the heart of your work!

Writing can sometimes feel like an uphill battle, but staying motivated is key. Even as you grapple with the question, "what is mechanics in writing?", maintaining your enthusiasm for the craft is crucial. Here are some ways to keep your writing spirit high.

Personal writing goals can help you stay focused and motivated. Here are some tips on setting effective goals:

• Set both short-term and long-term goals. A short-term goal could be writing a certain number of words per day, while a long-term goal could be completing a novel in a year.
• Make your goals achievable but challenging. This can help you push your writing skills to the next level.
• Track your progress. Seeing how far you've come can be incredibly motivating.

Remember: Setting personal goals is like creating a roadmap for your writing journey. It keeps you on track and makes the destination seem achievable.

Celebrating small wins can boost your motivation and make the writing process more enjoyable. Here's how:

• Celebrate each completed chapter, blog post, or poem. These small victories are stepping stones to your larger goals.
• Share your accomplishments with others. Whether it's a supportive friend, a writing group, or your social media followers, sharing your progress can be motivating and rewarding.
• Give yourself a small reward for each achievement. This could be as simple as a cup of your favorite coffee or a walk in the park.

Tip: Celebrating small wins can make the writing process more enjoyable and keep your motivation levels high. It's all about enjoying the journey, not just the destination.

Keeping a writing journal can be a great source of motivation and a way to track your progress. Here's how you can use a writing journal:

• Record your daily writing achievements, no matter how small they may seem.
• Write down your thoughts, ideas, and inspirations. They could be useful for your future writing projects.
• Reflect on your writing journey. This can help you see how much you've grown as a writer.

Note: A writing journal is more than just a record of your writing—it's a tool that can help you stay motivated and inspired.

Staying motivated as you navigate the world of writing mechanics is key. With these strategies, you can keep your writing spirit high, no matter the challenges you face.

As you continue to explore "what is mechanics in writing", it's important to stay grounded and focused. Practicing mindfulness can bring clarity to your writing process and instill calmness in your practice. Here's how.

Meditation can help you clear your mind and focus on your writing. Consider these steps:

• Before you begin a writing session, take a few minutes to meditate. This can help clear your mind and prepare you for focused writing.
• Focus on your breath or a calming word or phrase during your meditation.
• Try to make meditation a part of your daily writing routine for maximum benefits.

Keep in mind: Meditation isn't about achieving a certain state—it's about being present and focused. This can greatly enhance your writing practice.

Mindful writing involves being present and focused while you write. Here's how to practice it:

• Before you start writing, take a moment to become aware of your surroundings. Notice the feel of the pen or keyboard under your fingers, the sound of your breath, the words forming in your mind.
• As you write, stay focused on the present moment and the words flowing from your mind to the page.
• When your mind wanders, gently bring it back to your writing.

Remember: Mindful writing can help you write more clearly and creatively. It's about enjoying the process, not just the end result.

Staying present while writing can help you write more effectively and enjoy the process more. Consider these tips:

• Try to stay focused on your writing, without worrying about the past or the future.
• If you find your mind wandering, gently bring it back to the task at hand.
• Take regular breaks to rest and refocus.

Note: Staying present while writing isn't always easy, but it's worth the effort. It can bring a new level of depth and enjoyment to your writing practice.

Practicing mindfulness can bring calmness and clarity to your writing practice. As you continue to explore the mechanics of writing, remember to stay present and enjoy the process.

Understanding "what is mechanics in writing" is a journey that involves continuous learning and improvement. Here's how you can reflect on your progress and plan for improvement.

Receiving feedback is a powerful way to improve your writing. You can:

• Ask friends, family, or fellow writers to read your work and give their opinions.
• Consider their feedback and decide which suggestions can help improve your writing.
• Apply these suggestions in your next piece of writing.

Don't forget: Feedback is not about criticism, it's about growth. Every piece of advice is a step towards becoming a better writer.

Tracking your writing progress can help you see how far you've come and where you can improve. Here are some ways you can do this:

• Keep a record of the pieces you've written, noting the date, word count, and any feedback you received.
• Every few weeks or months, review your progress and note any patterns or improvements.
• Use this information to guide your future writing efforts.

Tip: Analysing your progress can help you appreciate your growth and inspire you to keep improving. It's a way of saying "look how far you've come!"

Once you've analysed your progress, it's time to plan for further improvement. Here's how:

• Identify areas where you'd like to improve. This might be grammar, vocabulary, or a specific aspect of writing mechanics.
• Create a plan to work on these areas. This might involve setting aside time for study, joining a writing group, or taking a course.
• Stick to your plan and review it regularly to ensure it's helping you reach your goals.

Remember: Improvement is a journey, not a destination. As you continue to learn about the mechanics of writing, celebrate your progress and always strive to do better.

Understanding "what is mechanics in writing" is a lifelong journey. By reflecting on your progress and planning for improvement, you can continue to grow and develop as a writer. And remember, every step you take is a step towards becoming a better writer.

If you're eager to improve your writing skills and learn more about the art of storytelling, be sure to check out Jessy Moussallem's workshop titled ' Scriptwriting '. This workshop provides valuable insights, tips, and techniques to help you craft compelling scripts and elevate your writing abilities to the next level.

Live classes every day

Learn from industry-leading creators

Get useful feedback from experts and peers

Best deal of the year

* billed annually after the trial ends.

*Billed monthly after the trial ends.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Handling Thesis : Complete Guide on Thesis Mechanics and Writing

Related Papers

Bounthanh Lee

A book like this cannot be written in isolation. While most of the text found in this manual is original, dozens of similar books and experts were consulted, and many colleagues and friends provided information, feedback, and suggestions. My greatest thanks goes to Nancy Vyhmeister, author of the first AIIAS writing manual, for her willingness to share original content and ideas from her work. Chapter 1 is taken largely from her prior work. She was also instrumental as a consultant for the Turabian chapter and in overall editing of this book. Thanks also to Juanita Bissell, for contributing the basis for the Turabian chapter from her earlier AIIAS Turabian manual. This has been revised, updated, and shortened, but her work is still the basis for Chapter 6. Thanks to Elsie Dela Cruz, Prema Gaikwad, and Esther Papaioannou for their substantial contributions to the APA explanations in Chapter 7. Thanks also to Bonnie Proctor, the editor at Andrews University, for her willingness to share ideas, resources, and materials. By now it is difficult to tell where her ideas end and mine begin, but some of her work is included especially in the introduction, and in the chapters on academic writing conventions, mechanics, APA and Turabian. Her support has been much appreciated.

Gezahegn Gezmu

Sustainable Design Unit , Anna Papadopoulou , Petros Lapithis

Written by designers, geared for design students, this guidebook is a valuable resource for better research and writing. It teases the imagination to help find a suitable topic for university level research assignments, embracing both theses and dissertations, and it provides a savvy roadmap for successfully completing all basic elements of the essay product. Over and above this a special section is included on how design students can become quicker, more efficient readers.

Austin Onewo

Qualitative Inquiry

Ronald Hallett

How a text is written influences what is written. The writing process involves more than grammar and sentence structure. The authors use Laurel Richardson’s “writing-story” to discuss the process of writing a dissertation. The authors share how they negotiated the advisor–advisee relationship throughout the dissertation process. Narratives are used to illustrate the differing perceptions experienced and negotiated within the advisor–advisee relationship. Mentoring emerging scholars requires knowledge of the student beyond evaluation of his or her manuscript. Five aspects writing frame the discussion: trust, communication, time, identity, and reflexivity.

Malehe pourkazemi

Therese Quinn

Handbook for the Museum and Exhibition Studies Graduate Program at the University of Illinois at Chicago.

Journal of Colloid and Interface Science

Program Handbook

This is the handbook of the Museum and Exhibition Studies Master's Program at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Design by Jennifer Dominiak.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Teguh Budiharso

Yu-Hsiu (Hugo) Lee (李育修)

Ansie Lessing

sadia akmal

Texas State PA Applied Research Projects

Montserrat Castello , Otto Kruse

Jesse Kavadlo

enow prisca

Ramin Shafagatov

Working Papers in Applied Linguistics

Madalina Chitez , Brittany Rodriguez

Thomas Lavelle

Omar Valerio-Jiménez

Angela Mead

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Mechanics of Style

Style refers to guidelines for ensuring clear, consistent communication and presentation in written works. When you follow style guidelines, you avoid inconsistencies among and within academic papers, journal articles, and book chapters.

Existing practices may disagree (e.g., American vs. Canadian or British English spelling), and the practices you follow depend on where you live and who you are writing for (e.g., the international audience of an academic journal or the classroom).

However, style guidelines often overlap with general good writing practices. Style manuals agree more often than they disagree; when they disagree, follow the guidelines in the Publication Manual for APA Style papers or publications as well as recommendation or guidelines from your instructor or publisher.

Academic Writer ®

Master academic writing with APA’s essential teaching and learning resource

Course Adoption

Teaching APA Style? Become a course adopter of the 7th edition  Publication Manual

APA Dictionary of Psychology

Browse more than 25,000 authoritative entries across 90 subfields of psychology